An Unbiased Lens on the Raj

An honest review of the Audible audiobook: A History of British India

The history of the British Raj is often told through deeply polarized lenses. Depending on who you read, the narrative can lean heavily toward defensive colonial justification or intensely passionate nationalist critique. That is why I was thoroughly intrigued to listen to A History of British India on Audible.

Narrated and analysed from an outside perspective, this audiobook offers a refreshing, clear-eyed look at the complex machinery of empire. Here is my honest breakdown of what made this listen worth the credits, and where it fell slightly short.

About the Book:

The course (in the form of an audiobook) is taught/narrated by Dr. Hayden J. Bellenoit, a Professor of History who specializes in South Asian history. His academic research deeply investigates the intersection of Indian society, taxation, and administrative history during the colonial era, making him uniquely qualified to unpack the complex mechanics of the Raj.

It tracks the trajectory of the subcontinent from the early 1700s—capturing the twilight of the Mughal Empire and the early footprints of the East India Company—all the way to the monumental year of Independence and Partition in 1947.

The course is structured into 24 chapters, running at approximately 30 minutes each. The narration is tight yet engaging, while packing in a massive amount of detail.

What I Liked: An Unbiased, Economic Lens:

1. The Outsider Advantage: Having an American professor - tackle this period works surprisingly well. Because the creator doesn't have "skin in the game" in the traditional sense, the tone feels less biased. It moves away from pure emotional finger-pointing and instead focuses on analyzing and things actually happened.

2. A Deep Dive into the Financial Aspects of Empire: Instead of just focusing on politics and battles, the course does a brilliant job of exploring the raw economic levers that shaped the rise and fall of British rule. It treats history like a complex financial chess match, showing how money—more than just military might—drove major historical shifts.

The audiobook highlights several fascinating economic examples that standard histories often gloss over: 

a. The Role of Indian Bankers: It reveals the uncomfortable financial realities of the early colonial era, detailing how indigenous Indian bankers and merchants (like the Jagat Seths) actually financed the East India Company's early rise.

b. Currency Devaluation as a Catalyst: It explains how the British government artificially manipulated and devalued the Indian Rupee against the British Pound. This monetary policy drained Indian wealth and became a massive, under-discussed catalyst that fuelled the Civil Disobedience Movement.

c. The WWII Industrial Impetus: It charts the unintended consequences of the Second World War, showing how Britain's desperate wartime demands gave a massive impetus to local Indian manufacturing, inadvertently laying the groundwork for India's post-independence industry.

3. Critical Look at Complex Social Dynamics

Beyond the economics, I really appreciated how the course dives into complex social issues, specifically looking at how colonial administrative policies fundamentally altered Indian society. Rather than viewing local social structures as completely static, the lecture series sheds light on how British rule actively interacted with them to serve its own governance needs

a. The Hardening of the Caste System: It details how British census-taking, legal codification, and administrative classifications solidified and rigidified the caste system, taking fluid social identities and making them much more rigid than they had been in the pre-colonial era.

b. Amplifying Religious Differences: It addresses how administrative strategies and political balancing acts ended up deepening and weaponizing religious divisions across the subcontinent, creating systemic fractures that would eventually culminate in the tragedy of Partition.

What Could Be Better:

If you are a deep history buff who has read extensively on the subcontinent, you might catch a few historical inaccuracies or oversimplifications along the way. A few minor details regarding specific dates or regional nuances were slightly off. However, given the massive scope of the project, these minor hiccups don't ruin the narrative flow and can easily be ignored by the average listener.

A History of British India is an incredibly engaging, finance-forward look at the Raj. If you want to understand the political, social and economic chess match that built and eventually dismantled an empire—without the usual ideological baggage—this Audible title is highly recommended.

Where the Lord Descends: Nadaivavi Kinaru

Our exploration of the hidden gems around Kanchipuram didn’t stop at the monolithic Hanuman. Leaving behind the serene, historic vibes of the Sanjeevar Rayar Temple (which I detailed in my previous post, here), we set out toward our next destination: the exquisite Nadaivavi Kinaru.

The journey between these two sites turned out to be just as delightful as the destinations themselves. We found ourselves driving along a rustic road beautifully lined with lush Jamun (black plum) trees. The branches were heavy with ripe fruit, and we couldn’t resist stopping. Shaking the branches and picking up the ripe, deep-purple berries, we stained our tongues purple and enjoyed the sweet-tart burst of summer — a nostalgic, simple pleasure that set a wonderful tone for the rest of our day.

Discovering the Subterranean Marvel: As we approached the site, the landscape opened up, and there it was - the Nadaivavi Kinaru (also known as the Nadaivavi Stepwell). Tucked away in the quiet village of Ayyengarakulam, this isn't your ordinary village well. It is a spectacular, large, subterranean stepwell built entirely of granite, showcasing the brilliant engineering and artistic finesse of the Vijayanagara era.

The entrance to the stepwell is marked by a grand, beautifully carved gateway. As you look up, you are greeted by an exquisite image of Gajalakshmi (Goddess Lakshmi flanked by two elephants) carved atop the lintel, symbolising prosperity and auspiciousness. Flanking the gateway on either side are striking, life-sized pillars featuring fierce, mythical Yalis ridden by warriors. The detailing on these pillars is incredibly sharp, immediately conveying the royal patronage behind this structure.

Beyond the entrance lies a series of stone steps leading down into the well. The architecture is precise and symmetrical, reflecting both engineering intelligence and aesthetic sensibility. Each level draws you deeper, not just physically but also psychologically — into a cooler, quieter and a more spiritual world. Here, the design balances function, symmetry, and sacred symbolism. Even though we could not access the entire depth, standing midway and observing the angular descent, the textures of the stone, and the play of light and shadow was enough to appreciate its brilliance.

The Sacred Tradition of Varadaraja Perumal: Nadaivavi is not just an architectural wonder; it holds a profound religious and cultural significance. The well was deliberately designed to facilitate a unique annual ritual associated with the famous Sri Kanchi Varadaraja Perumal Temple. Every year, during the Chitra Pournami (full moon day in the Tamil month of Chithirai) festival, the processional deity, Lord Varadaraja Perumal, makes a grand journey from Kanchipuram to this very stepwell in Ayyengarakulam. This event is known as the Nadaivavi Utsavam.

For this specific festival, the water from the stepwell is completely pumped out. Lord Varadaraja Perumal descends the stone steps deep into the heart of the well, where a special Thirumanjanam (holy bath) and grand abhishekam are performed inside the subterranean chambers. Thousands of devotees gather around the rim and on the steps of the well to witness this breathtaking sight.

Water bodies have always held deep meaning in Indian temple culture — symbolising purification, life, and divine presence. Nadaivavi is one such place where faith meets function, where even a well becomes part of divine movement.

Ayyengarakulam and the Legacy of Tatacharya: Visiting Ayyengarakulam makes you realise how much history is waiting to be discovered just a few kilometers outside the main temple town of Kanchipuram. The village itself, along with the massive Ayyengarakulam tank, the Sanjeevar Rayar temple, and this stepwell, owes its existence to Kotikanyadanam Tatacharya, the revered royal preceptor (Rajaguru) of the Vijayanagara Empire during the late 16th and early 17th centuries.

Tatacharya was a visionary administrator and a devout soul who transformed this region by building vast water bodies for irrigation and constructing these architectural marvels to foster community and devotion. Today, as you stand between the whispering Palmyra trees, looking down into the cool depths of Nadaivavi, you can't help but feel a deep sense of gratitude for Tatacharya’s enduring legacy.

If you are planning a trip to Kanchipuram, do skip the crowded highways for a few hours and take the detour to Ayyengarakulam. It’s a journey through Jamun-lined pathways into the very heart of Tamil Nadu's forgotten history.

Beyond Kanchi: Tatacharya’s Monolith Hanuman

Sanjeevar Rayar Hanuman Temple on the banks of Tata Samudram

The historic landscapes surrounding Kanchipuram are littered with structural marvels that often escape the frantic gaze of the casual weekend traveler. While the core of the ancient Pallava capital draws crowds to its soaring gopurams, a short detour across the Palar River uncovers an entirely different layer of heritage— one deeply intertwined with the late Vijayanagara empire and one of its most influentials figures. On a crisp Saturday morning, the 30th of August, we set out from Bengaluru to explore one such hidden architectural gem: the Sanjeevar Rayar Hanuman Temple in Ayyengarakulam, Kanchi District. This ancient shrine marked the very first stop of our journey into the historic Kanchi region, setting a magnificent, deeply evocative tone for the rest of our trip.

The Journey: From Ghats to Historic Towns: Leaving the chaotic tech hubs of Bengaluru early on a Saturday permitted us a smooth escape from the city's bottlenecks as we steered towards Venkatagiri Kota, a town located at the borderlands where Karnataka, Andhra and Tamil Nadu converge. The real highlight of the drive followed immediately after, as we navigated the beautiful, winding roads of the Koundinya Wildlife Sanctuary. This stretch offered an evocative transition from the rugged edges of the Deccan plateau to the plains below, with the dense forest providing a cool, misty cover and sharp hairpin bends keeping the drive exhilarating. Emerging from the sanctuary ghats, our route cut directly through Vellore before tracking the course of the Palar River eastward into Arcot - the historic town, famously serving as a major theatre of the 18th-century Carnatic Wars. From this storied landscape, we veered into the quiet, temple-dense periphery of Kanchipuram to reach our first destination at Ayyengarakulam.

The main shrine with beautiful Kolams

The Rajaguru’s Realm: Spiritual Pedigree and Imperial Power: To look at Ayyengarakulam today is to see a peaceful agrarian hamlet, yet its very name—meaning "the tank or pond of the Iyengar" — whispers of its profound historical origins. The village and its massive water body owe their existence to Sri Lakshmi Kumar Thathacharya (1571–1643 CE), a towering ecclesiastical, literary, and administrative figure who served as the Rajaguru (Royal Preceptor) to Emperor Venkatapatadeva Raya during a time when the imperial capital had shifted south, first to Chandragiri and later to Vellore as the Deccan Sultans kept chipping away at what was left of once mighty Vijayanagar Empire.

Tracing his lineage directly back to the foundational pillars of Vishishtadvaita philosophy — including Acharya Nathamuni, Tirumala Nambi and the great Ramanujacharya, Tatacharya held the hereditary right to manage crucial rituals at Tirumala and Kanchi, a spiritual pedigree he matched with intellectual brilliance as the author of several religious works. He utilised his immense imperial leverage and personal fortune to orchestrate a massive cultural renaissance, famously gold-plating the Ananda Vimanam of Tirumala and the Punya Koti Vimanam in Kanchipuram to restore pride to an empire that was losing to quickly losing its relevance in the muddy politics of contemporary South India. It was this vast wealth and influence that birthed his legendary moniker, "Kotikanyadanam" (literally, "the donor of a crore of brides"). Historically, this title celebrates his unmatched philanthropy in personally sponsoring and providing dowries for thousands of mass marriages for impoverished families across the war ravaged kingdom.

His devotion eventually anchored itself in Ayyengarakulam following a narrow escape on a jungle path. While transporting royal treasury funds destined for Kanchi, Tatacharya’s caravan was ambushed by highwaymen. Praying fervently in the wilderness, he witnessed a miracle when a massive troop of wild monkeys descended from the canopy to scatter the bandits. In profound gratitude, the Rajaguru cleared the jungle, established a settlement, engineered a massive reservoir, and consecrated the ground to the most celebrated monkey in Indian traditions - Lord Hanuman.

Garuda

Temple Architecture and Sacred Layout: The Sanjeevar Rayar Temple stands as a classical specimen of late Vijayanagara style engineering, showcasing a robust structural layout designed to withstand both the elements and historical turbulence. The entire complex is enveloped by a thick, fort-like granite Prakaram (perimeter wall), lending it an air of defensive strength. Upon passing through the unassuming entrance, one enters a vast open-air courtyard where the main shrine sits elevated on a molded stone plinth. The central deity, Lord Sanjeevar Rayar, is a magnificent bas-relief carved onto a massive monolithic granite boulder. Standing several feet tall, the figure of Hanuman faces north towards Ayodhya, as if paying obeisance to his Lord - Sri Raam. His right hand is raised in the Abhaya Mudra (the gesture of reassurance and protection), while his left hand rests firmly on his hip, holding the stalk of the celestial Sanjeevini herb. His tail loops elegantly behind his head, tipped with a small, symbolic bell — a definitive hallmark of Vijayanagara-era iconography. The stone carving retains extraordinarily sharp, crisp details despite centuries of exposure to continuous ritual anointment.

One of the most unique and iconographically distinct elements of this temple is the presence of a life-sized, standing statue of Garuda, the celestial eagle mount of Lord Vishnu. Typically, in standalone Hanuman temples, Garuda is either completely absent or relegated to minor carvings on pillars, as Hanuman himself is the supreme devotee. Here, however, Garuda stands prominently in an attitude of eternal reverence, facing the lake with his hands folded in Anjali Mudra. The detailing of his wings, the ornaments across his chest, and his sharp, vigilant features reflect the exquisite craftsmanship of the post-Vijayanagara school of artisans who worked under Tatacharya's patronage.

A more recent addition, were the massive the floor art, mapping the stone walkways. Unlike the standard daily flour markings that quickly fade, the Kolam drawings winding around the heavy pillars are captured in permanent paints, with distinct white borders that offer stark, beautiful contrast to the dark, austere weathered granite blocks, ensuring that the sacred geometric patterns and symmetric lotus motifs eternally guide the steps of pilgrims walking toward the inner sanctum.

Tata Samudram as seen from the temple

The Historic Ayyengarakulam Lake: No visit to this sacred complex can be complete without walking across to the massive Ayyengarakulam Lake, located immediately adjacent to the temple precincts. Engineered by Tatacharya to counter the erratic monsoons of the Palar river basin, this colossal step-tank and reservoir system serves as a monumental example of medieval water management.

Locally known as Tata Samudram (the Sea of Tatacharya) because of its sheer vastness, it spreads over an incredible 150 acres. Walking along the massive earth bund, you are greeted by a series of wide, perfectly dressed granite steps leading down to the water’s edge from all sides. Historically, this lake played a vital role in the region's agricultural survival, acting as a lifeline for the surrounding villages. Standing by the stone steps as the afternoon breeze rippled across the water, it was easy to appreciate the immense scale of engineering required to sustain an entire kingdom centuries ago.

Beginning our regional exploration at Ayyengarakulam was a vivid reminder that history's most profound chapters aren’t always found in the grand, crowded centers of Kanchipuram; they thrive in the quiet detours we so often bypass. Standing at the intersection of Tatacharya's grand architectural ambition and the stark, elegance of the painted Kolams, the transition of centuries felt completely seamless. The Sanjeevar Rayar Temple remains a remarkable testament to an era when statesmanship, spiritual devotion, and monumental water engineering were driven by a single, focused vision. Leaving the quiet banks of the Tata Samudram behind to continue our road trip deeper into Kanchi, we took with us the unforgettable image of a monolithic guardian still holding watch over the legacy of his architect.

THE GOA STATE MUSEUM - PART 3

THE GAJALAXMI PANEL

The third of my many posts on the Goa State Museum is the Gajalaxmi panel that are displayed on the ground floor. As the name suggests, the stone slabs were commissioned in the honor of Laxmi - the Hindu Goddess of Wealth.

Gajalaxmi - 14th-15th century AD

The first of the two slabs, the one displayed in the above picture belongs to the 14 ^th - 15 ^the century and was found at Gulle in Sattari taluka in the north-east part of the state. This rectangular structure has an image of the Goddess in the centre, flanked by attendants and a pair of elephants with mahouts. The image of Laxmi is separated from rest of the slab by two small pillars. The lowest panel has people praying to the goddess with two mythical, yali like creatures in the middle, facing each other. In the two sections that make up the middle panel, one can see people playing instruments in the honor of the Goddess whereas the topmost panel has horses at the extreme ends.

Gajalaxmi - 17th century AD

The other basalt stone slab, belonging to the 17^th century found at Dharbandoda in Sanguem consists of the Goddess sitting atop a pedestal, holding lotus buds in her hand. She is flanked by attendants fanning her, two ornate elephants and two warriors in full military gear who are bowing before Her. The middle panel depicts cavalrymen whereas the panel at the bottom shows people dancing and singing hymns in the praise of the goddess. On a closer inspection, one can see two strangely dressed men, perhaps in Persian attire in the lower section.

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More from the series: GOA STATE MUSEUM

(1) An Introduction (Link)

(2) The Hero Stones (Link)

(3) The Sati Stones (Link)

(4) The Gajalaxmi Stones (Link)

(5) The Cult of Mahishasura Mardini (Link)

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Reference: Catalogue of the Remarkable Sculptures in the Goa State Museum

THE GOA STATE MUSEUM - PART 1

THE HERO STONES

The first of the many posts I intend to write on the exhibits in the Goa State Museum, as the name suggests, is on the Hero Stones which are common in this part of the country. These are carved stone slabs that commemorate the death of those brave men who laid down their lives on the battlefield fighting to either protect or uphold the honor of their kingdom or its people from adversaries. Alternatively known as Virgal, they are generally divided into three panels, though in rare instances as many as five panels are seen. Of these, the lowest shows the hero decked up in full military armour, vanquishing the opponents before falling on the ground himself. In the middle panel, he is shown being lifted towards the heavens, accompanied by nymphs and other mythical figures celebrating his ascent whereas the topmost panel shows him seated in the Swarga Lok (Heaven) worshiping the Gods, a fitting tribute to a person who had perished for the 'larger cause'. Besides, accompanying inscriptions, either in Devnagari or Kannada give the name of the hero, sometimes the year of his death and the battle in which he met his ultimate end.

Goa being an important trading centre along the western coast was always the bone of contention amongst the various dynasties vying for power in northern and central Deccan. As such, battles were frequently fought for the control of the rich port and these would have resulted in casualties running into hundreds and thousands, each time the opposing armies met on the battle field. The valor displayed by some of these brave men was 'immortalized' in this unique form. Perhaps, this is the most probable explanation for the large number of hero stones to be found in this region.

Hero Stones or Virgal - 12th century AD

There are two Hero Stones in the State Museum, both of these dating back to the 12^th century AD which corresponds to the time when Goa was ruled by the Kadambas from their base at Chandrapur (modern Candor). The one on the left made of Compact Chlorite Schist was found at Khandepar in Ponda taluka whereas the one on right was found at Malkarne in Sanguem taluka and is made of Talc Chlorite Schist stone.

The one one the left is particularly interesting. The lowest panel of this memorial shows the hero being slayed by a person with a sword. However, the interesting bit about this panel is that there is a person on the extreme left who is playing a musical instrument as the hero is being killed as if it was some kind of a ritual and not a regular battle scene. Could this be the depiction of an instance of human sacrifice, perhaps the stone was commissioned to recount the bravery of a villager who volunteered to be killed for the betterment of entire society as a whole; if yes, what was the reason for this gory ritual and whom are the contemporary people who inhabited Khandepar aiming to please by this act. The middle section show the celebrations in the honour of the hero whereas the topmost panel depicts him merging into a Shiv Linga and being worshipped by a priest and an attendant.

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More from the series: GOA STATE MUSEUM

(1) An Introduction (Link)

(2) The Hero Stones (Link)

(3) The Sati Stones (Link)

(4) The Gajalaxmi Stones (Link)

(5) The Cult of Mahishasura Mardini (Link)

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Reference: Catalogue of the Remarkable Sculptures in the Goa State Museum

THE SILAHARAS - Part II

THE SOUTH KONKAN SILAHARAS

Ganapati - Silahara Period (8th cent.)
Pilar Museum - Goa Velha

The first amongst the three Silahara kingdoms of the middle ages, the South Konkan Silaharas or the Goa Silaharas ruled areas of modern day Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra between the eighth and the eleventh centuries, chiefly as the feudatories of the mighty Rashtrakutas who were the preeminent political dynasty in much of the Sub-continent during this time. Like most 'minor' dynasties that rose and fell during this age, our knowledge about these kings, their administration, the prevalent socio-economic conditions and so on is meager to say the least; as a matter of fact, most information regarding the political history of this dynasty comes from the few copper plates that have been found so far, the most famous being that of one Rattaraja - probably, the last king of this dynasty which were found in the village of Kharepattan in the Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. These plates are no less than the famous 'Rosetta Stone' since they give a detailed genealogy of the whole clan beginning from the man who established this kingdom and his subsequent successors up to Rattaraja including their exploits. Of course, relying completely on this to rewrite the political history of this clan could be a costly mistake. However, in absence of other credible sources, validating the information present in these plates to reconstruct the South Konkan Silahara history is not possible.

Gokapattanam or Govapuri (Goa Velha) along the Zuari River is said to have been their capital with some historians stating that it was later moved to some prominent place in the Sawantwadi - Ratnagiri region. This assumption seems to be correct since the Kharepattan plates mention of the presence of a separate ruling family at Chandor which is not very far from Goa Velha. Though this family, of which we do not have any specific information was generally sub-ordinate to the Goa Silaharas, there have been instances recorded of hostilities between the two. As such, it would have been a strategic blunder for the capital to be so close to Chandor. Hence the observation of the South Konkan Silahara capital being in somewhere in modern day Ratnagiri region seems to make a lot of sense although the historical records to back this claim by be lacking at present.

THE ORIGINS

Like all other Silahara kingdom, the kings of the South Konkan branch claim to be descendants of King Jamutivahana - the mythical Vidyadhara king who is the prime protagonist of the Sanskrit epic Nagananda which is attributed to the great Vardhana Emperor Harsha. In this drama, the wise king who gives up his empire and retires to the forests, offers himself as a sacrifice to save the serpent race from the wrath of the Garuda. As the mythical bird realizes its mistake, Jamutivahan is revived from the dead and Garuda promises to end his annihilation of the snakes, bringing 'ananda' (joy) to the Nagas (serpents).

While the records of the branches at Thana and Kolhapur say that they were natives of the town of Ter, the Goan Silaharas records mention relations with the Kings of Simhala. People familiar with history would naturally and rightly identify Simhala with Ceylon or modern day Sri Lanka. However, Altekar suggests that Simhala here meant 'Tiswadi' - the island along the Goan coast on which the city of Panjim is situated. In fact, this conclusion seems to be correct since Goa was an integral part of the South Konkan Silahara kingdom. More interestingly, if the above conclusion is correct, Silaharas may actually be the first native Goan kings.

SANAPHULLA - THE FOUNDER

Ganesh - Silahara period (10 cent.)
The Goa State Museum, Patto - Panjim

As per the Kharepattan plates, the kingdom was founded by Sanaphulla who was granted the land between the Sahaya mountains (possibly the Sahayadris or the Western Ghats) and the Arabian Sea by the Rashtrakuta Emperor Krishna I in the mid-eight century. In fact, the Southern Silahara kings continued to owe their allegiance to their overlords at Manyakheta till the end of that clan. The claims in the plates suggests that Sanaphulla aided his 'master' Krishna I who was the second ruler in the Rashtrakuta clan, in subjugating the Konkan coast which was under the influence of the Badami Chalukyas till the downfall of the dynasty in AD 753. As the emperor left after conquering the coast, he perhaps appointed Sanaphulla as his 'Viceroy' or 'Governor', thereby establishing the dynasty.

Another scenario that is possible is that following the fall of the Chalukyan empire due  to the defeats inflicted upon them by the Pandyas and the Rashtrakutas, Sanaphulla who may be hailed from Goa, gathered a fighting force and drove away the Chalukyan defenders or their allies who guarding the rich port city of Govapuri. After expanding his influence in nearby areas along the coast, he might have submitted to the authority of the Rashtrakutas who were fast emerging as the undisputed masters of the Deccan. Though Goa was a prosperous region back then and a lots of money flowed in due to the international sea trade, the nascent kingdom stood no chance in front of the strong Rashtrakutan army. Moreover, there would definitely have been other contenders who were eager to bring the port city under their control. Probably, this is why he voluntarily accepted Rashtakuta overlordship and obtained their permission to rule the southern Konkan region by promising to pay an annual tribute and assist them as and when needed.

THE CHRONOLOGY

Sr. No.	King	Reign
1	Sanaphulla	765-795
2	Dhammayira	795-820
3	Aiyapparaja	820-845
4	Avasara I	845-870
5	Adityavarman	870-895
6	Avasara II	895-920
7	Indraraja	920-945
8	Bhima	945-970
9	Avasara III	970-995
10	Rattaraja	995-1020

a. This is the chronology of the South Konkan Silahara dynasty as given in the Kharepattan plates of Rattaraja.

b. In the absence of accurate details regarding the regnal years of the above mentioned kings, historians generally attribute a reign of 25 years to each of them which is the average reign for Indian kings ruling in the medieval times.

THE KINGDOM STABILIZES

Sanaphulla's successor was Dhammayira who is said to have consolidated his family's hold over the nascent kingdom by erecting a fort at Vallipattana or Ballipatana. Though there is no conclusion, historians have identified this port with places like Velim in South Goa, Kharepattan in Ratnagiri district and so on. It seems to have been a bustling port during this time and and well connected to other nearby ports of Chandrapur (Chandor, Goa) and Chemul (Chaul, Maharashtra). Moreover, the Kharepattan plates also mention ships from far and wide docking in its yard and the taxes that they paid to the Southern Silahara treasury. Some believe that in course of time, Vallipattana could even have served as a second capital of their kingdom apart from the first seat of power at Goa Velha.

Aiyaparaja, the third king in this line is said to have won a victory over the local ruler of Chandrapur. This was perhaps a major boost to the Silahara kingdom. Firstly, this victory would have helped in maintaining their supremacy in the neighborhood. Moreover, Chandor was a prosperous port having trading contacts with other coastal towns along the Western coastline and bringing it under the influence of the Silaharas would have earned them certain financial benefits too.

Silaharas - Silver Coins (11th - 12th Cent.)
The Goa State Museum, Patto - Panjim

ADITYAVARMAN - THE GREATEST SOUTH KONKAN SILAHARA KING

Though the Kharepattan plates may refer to Avasara I as the 'Vanquisher of the Enemies', it was his son - Adityavarman who in my opinion was the greatest ruler of this clan. The contemporary North Konkan Silahara ruler - Lagu Kapardin II was still a minor and Adityavarman used this opportunity to increase his supremacy over most of the Konkan region. As per the plates, he is said to have offered assistance to the rulers of Chandrapur and Chemul. If we consider these two places as the northern and the southern limits of the South Silahara 'sphere of influence', then it means that Adityavarman was the master of nearly 500 kilometer of Konkan coast, leaving only the Mumbai-Thana region for the Northern Silaharas. Thus the kingdom reached its zenith under him.

GATHERING OF THE CLOUDS ON THE HORIZON

Adityavarman was succeeded by Avasara II, Indraraja and Bhima who is recorded as being 'ambitious'. It was during his reign that the Goa Kadamba dynasty rose and captured Chandor. Since the Kadambas were loyal to the Kalyana Chalukyas who were the sworn enemies of the Rashtrakutas - the overlords of the South Konkan Silaharas, the two clans are believed to have been hostile towards each other. Bhima is said to have won a victory over the first Kadambas king Shashthadeva or his son Chaturbhuja. However, this win was in no way decisive since it was the Goa Kadamba dynasty that would play a key role in bringing an end to the South Konkan Silahara kingdom.

As if the Kadamba takeover of Chandor was not enough, the Silaharas were delivered a crushing blow when the Rashtrakuta dynasty was overthrown by the Kalyana Chalukyas during the reign of Avasara III. Though most of the vassals of the Rashtrakutas had switched their allegiance to Tailapa II by now, the Goan Silaharas continued to be loyal to them. In fact, the Kharepattan grant of Avasara's successor - Rattaraja contains the genealogy of the Malked clan, a right reserved only for the imperial overlords. By the time this grant was given, it was over two decades since the last of the Rashtrakuta kings were deposed yet the Goa Silaharas seem to have had some sense of gratitude and affection towards them which is strange. Thus while the North Konkan Silaharas accepted the suzerainty of the new rulers of Deccan, namely the Chalukyas, their counterparts down south were still held up in the past and this proved to be a costly mistake. The demise of the Rashtrakutas and the emergence of the Goa Kadambas who had allied themselves with the Kalyana Chalukyas proved disastrous for the Silaharas of southern Konkan. A grant of this ruler named as the Chikkodi or the Pattanakuddi plate dated AD 988 is the earliest of the three land grants belonging to this clan which have been found so far.

THE END

Two grants of Avasara's son and successor - Rattaraja have been found so far. The first dated AD 1008 are the Kharepattan plates which record the grant of three villages namely Kushmandi, Asavanire and Vadagule to Atreya the Brahmin belonging to the Karkaroni branch of Mattamayura clan of Saiva sect for the worship of God Aveshvara. Another grant issued two years later records the grant of a plot in the village of Bhaktagrama and a garden of betel nut to Sankamaiya, son of the Brahmin Senavi Bagamaiya. This was one of the earliest mention of the Shenvi Brahmanas who went on to dominate the Goan society in the later periods.

The series of events that culminated in the demise of this dynasty are unclear; neither are we sure as to who the last Goan Silahara king was - Rattaraja or his immediate successor. Anyway, what we can tell for sure is that the refusal of these kings to acknowledge the supremacy of the Chalukyas would have not gone well with the latter. Moreover, the Kadambas too were sensing on an opportunity to settle scores with them. Whatever be the reason for it, it is pretty clear that Chalukya emperor Jayasimha II invaded the South Silahara kingdom and deposed its ruler while returning from a campaign against the Cholas, probably after Rattaraja renounced his allegiance to the Kalyana clan following the death of its ruler Satyasraya or Vikramaditya V. It is also possible that the invasion weakened the Goa Silaharas and soon after the Chalukyan army withdrew, the city of Govapuri was attacked and captured by the Kadambas who are considered to be the political successors to the Goa Silaharas.

THE RASHTRAKUTA - SOUTH SILAHARA RELATIONS

Naga - Silahara Period (10th cent.)
The Goa State Museum, Patto - Panjim

The relationship between the kingdom and their imperial overlords in Manyakheta is 'enigmatic' to say the least. The Southern Silaharas were fiercely loyal to the Rashtrakutas; at a time when the power equations in the Deccan were fast changing in the later half of the tenth century and the Kalyana Chalukyas were the devouring vast swathes of the erstwhile Rashtrakuta empire, the kingdom continued to swear its allegiance to the Manyakheta court. In fact, even after the termination of this glorious line of rulers by Taila II, the grants of the Goan Silahara kings continued to begin with the genealogy of the now 'dead' clan. A copper plate of Rattaraja mentions with regret as to how the Rashtrakuta family was crushed by the weight of the mountain that fell on it in the form of Taila. It seems that the Silaharas later accepted the suzerainty of the Chalukyas but were doomed once they raised the banner of revolt leading to the invasion of the Goa region by Jayasimha II.

Though there are no questions regarding the loyalty of the Silaharas towards the Rashtrakutas, the relation between the two families is not as per the general convention of these times. For example, a vassal state was suppose to send in troops whenever its overlord undertook an expedition or was defending his sovereignty. We know for sure that the Rashtrakutan army fought many wars and their records do mention the sub-ordinate kings who helped them in their battles; however, the Southern Silaharas find no mention in all these records which is strange. After all, a dynasty that mourns the demise of its imperial masters in its personal records is expected to stand by them during their hour of need, isn't it? Moreover, we have no record of any sort of matrimonial alliance between the two families which too was a norm in most cases. Hopefully, our understanding of the nature of the relations between these two dynasties will enhance after more records of the Southern Silaharas are discovered in the future.

THE LEGACY

An important point that historians tend to miss while writing about this kingdom is the role that it would have played in the rich and prosperous Indo-Arab trade. We know that the Arabs were in contact with the Rashtrakutas as the Arab text Silsilatuttavarikh names them as one of the four greatest empires in the contemporary world. With the ships from the Gulf dominating the Arabian Sea region during this time, most of the trade or diplomatic relations between the two worlds i.e. India and Arabia would have happened through the seas. As the port cities in Konkan, Goa and Karavali (coastal Karnataka) were under the rule of states sub-ordinate to the Rashtrakutas, most of this trade would have happened here. Thus, both the Silahara kingdoms would have served as the 'Gateway to India' for the Arabs.

Medieval ports like Chandrapur (Chandor), Gokapattna (Goa Velha), Vallipattnam, Kharepattan, Chemul (Chaul), Puri (Elephanta) and Kalyan which were under the influence of the two Silahara clans were definitely the melting pot where these two worlds, each rich not only in terms of money but in science and culture as well, would converge benefiting both. From the perspective of the Silaharas, the trade would have been a rich source of revenue. The Kharepattan plates mention the Arabic ships docking at the port of Vallipattnam and the taxes that they paid to the authorities there.

THE SILAHARAS - Part I

THE THREE SILAHARA KINGDOMS

One of the least known dynasties to have ruled over the country, the Silaharas ruled over three, possibly related kingdoms in Western India between the 8^th and the 12^th century AD. I would not be surprised if most of us, even those taking a keen interest in Indian history would not have heard much about this clan. In fact, in the state of Goa, a place which was the very epicenter of the Southern Silahara kingdom, the dynasty just finds a few passing references in the state's history textbooks.

Although each of these three kingdoms lasted for over 150 years each, the kings were chiefly the feudatories to other powerful families ruling over contemporary Deccan like the Rashtrakutas or the Kadambas. Much against the general norm that existed around this time, it seems that these kings did not participate in the military campaigns of their 'overlords'; neither do we have any record of their matrimonial alliance with their 'masters'. Perhaps that was the reason that not much is said or written about them in the dynastic records of the other powerful houses. The paucity of material in the form of inscriptions and monuments from this era means that our understanding of the Silaharas is rather limited

THE THREE KINGDOMS

The earliest amongst these three kingdoms were the South Konkan Silaharas or the Goan Silaharas who ruled modern day Goa between mid-eight century to the early eleventh century. Though the North Konkan Silaharas or the Thana Silaharas rose about half a century later when compared to their southern counterparts, their power lasted for nearly four and half centuries until it was absorbed by the Yadavas. The last of these three - the Kolhapur Silaharas began their rule sometime around AD 1000 and last for over two centuries and like the Thana kingdom was later defeated and extinguished by the Yadavas who undertook expansionist activities during the thirteenth century in modern day Maharashtra.

ORIGIN

Though the three kingdoms share the name - Silahara, we are not sure about what kind of relationship existed between them. The only thing that we know was common between them, apart from the name was the fact that they claimed to be the descendants of the mythical hero - Jimutavahana from the Nagananda which is attributed to the great king Harsh Vardhan. As per the story, the king Jimutavahana of the Vidhyadharas offered himself as 'ahara' (food) to the bird Garuda on a 'sila' (rock) to save the Nagas or serpents from destruction and hence the name - Sila-hara. Unlike the Chalukyas or the Yadavas who claim that to be descendants of Gods like Rama or Krishna, it is rather surprising to see the Silaharas 'chose' a not so famous ancestor. Perhaps, the Gods were only reserved for the more powerful families; just a thought!

The Goan Silaharas claimed to have originated from Simahala which either was Sri Lanka or Goa whereas the records of the other two houses say that they were natives of Tagara. The exact location of this medieval city is unknown with historians connecting it with Ter, Kolhapur and so on.

WERE THEY RELATED?

Other than the fact that all three Silahara clans claim to be the descendants of Jimutavahana, two families, namely the Thana Silaharas and the Kolhapur Silaharas also shared the Garuda emblem which cannot be brushed aside as mere coincidence.

Considering that the North Konkan Silahara dynasty began about forty years after the establishment of the Goan Silahara kingdom, it is possible that the founder of the former kingdom was a member from the royal family that ruled over Goa. Perhaps, the viceroy who was appointed to govern northern Konkan broke off all allegiance to Goa and founded a new kingdom. Similarly, the founder of the house at Kolhapur too was in some way related to either of the other two houses. However, these are just some speculations that I am making and there are no historical evidence to back these claims.

THE BADAMI CHALUKYA - Part VII

BOOKS ON THIS DYANSTY

Since the rule of the Badami Chalukyas culminated over 1,200 years ago, the information available regarding them in the forms of inscriptions and other historical accounts is fairly limited. As such, the books available on this subject too are relatively few as compared to 'modern' dynasties like the Mughals or the Marathas. Anyway, following is a list of books that I have read about this illustrious line of rulers during the last few months.

POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI - D P DIKSHIT

'Keep it simple and stick to the point' is the mantra that Professor Dikshit had adopted in his book on the early Chalukyas. Published by Abhinav Publications and priced at a nominal sum of Rs. 200/-, the 'Political History of the Chalukyas of Badami' is a bible for anybody interested in the glorious history of this dynasty. As you read this book, you can easily make out how much effort has gone into it; truly, Professor must be credited for painstakingly going through the inscriptions that have been unearthed in the past and referring to the works of other eminent historians who have researched on this subject before him. What makes this a must read for history lovers is that he, like a true historian, he has used the available information in answering some of the most complex questions regarding the Early Chalukyas to the best of his abilities while also questioning some previously held assumptions.

For example, as far as the rise of the Vatapi kingdom is concerned, it is generally believed that they defeated their former overlords - the Kadambas of Banavasi to lay the foundation of their kingdom. However, Professor Dikshit's view on this is completely different; in fact, it is 'radical' to say the least. However, the reasons that he gives in support of his argument are quite convincing, though we cannot be take them to be the gospel truth as yet. Similarly, his take on the regnal years of Mangalesa, the date of the Harsha - Pulakeshi II including the circumstances that led to it and most importantly, his take on the series of events in the 13 years when the Pallavas held Vatapi are 'insightful' to say the least. Besides giving us a detailed political history of the clan, the book also has three sections dedicated to other aspects including General Administration, Finance and Military Organization. Finally, the last chapter consists of list of Chalukyan inscriptions, their dates and the information that they provide us with. This is the first time that I am coming across something like this and I must say, I am quite impressed with it. Probably, it will be great if other historians too follow this approach while writing books.

THE CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI (SEMINAR PAPERS) - MYTHIC SOCIETY

In 1974, the Mythic Society - a well reputed library based out of Bangalore which takes a keen interest in history and anthropology hosted a seminar where it invited historians and scholars to present their works on the Badami Chalukyas. The papers presented by about 30 scholars was collected and later published in the form of a book, four years later. Even before I review the book, I as a lover of history must thank the Myhtic Society for their excellent initiative. Indian history will certainly be enriched if more such conferences and seminars are conducted on a regular basis across the country.

Coming back to the review, this was the first time that I was reading such a collection of research papers written by some of the most eminent historians of the 70s and I must say that I enjoyed it. One third of the 30 chapters in the book are regarding the political history of the dynasty. The information though not as detailed as in the previous book, is pretty good, especially for those who do not like being bombarded with loads of information. However, it was some of the chapters on other topics that I liked reading the most; chapters like the one on Chalukyan Queens or the Chalukya - Ganga Relationship or the one on Chalukya - Pallava Conflict were very interesting; only well-read scholars can write articles on topics like these. Besides, there are sections on Chalukyan architecture, the social life during their times, their administration, their inscriptions in Kannada and Telugu, the impact that this dynasty had on the subsequent history of the Deccan et all; you rarely find such a wealth of information, that too from so many different experts in a single book. Of course, there are some chapters where you will not be able to follow what the author is trying to say since you lack the necessary information in that field. Still, over all, this book does provide you a holistic picture regarding the Chalukyas of Badami.

Priced at Rs. 50/-, this is perhaps one of the cheapest books that I have ever read. However, the problem is that finding a copy online is almost impossible. In fact, I went to the Mythic Society  at Nrupthunga Road (Link) to get a copy over an year ago. Also, there seem to be very few copies remaining and the lady there told me that they do not have any plans to reprint this book anytime in the near future. Hence, in case you need one, please pick a copy before it runs out of stock.

Read the complete series on Badami Chalukyas here (Link)

THE BADAMI CHALUKYAS - Part VI

THE ACHIEVEMENTS

(1) The Vesara style of Temple Building: The heart of the Badami Chalukya empire - the Malaprabha basin dotted by the towns of Badami (Vatapi), Aihole, Pattadkal and Mahakuta are described by many as the 'cradle of Indian temple architecture'. The Chalukyas blended the elements of the Nagara style of the North that reached its pinnacle during the Gupta era and the southern Dravidan style of their nemesis - the Pallavas to give rise to the Vesara temple architecture.

The Badami rulers as well as their queens were prolific builders; using locally available sandstone, the architects patronized by them created some of the most magnificent temples in northern Deccan. Designated as UNESCO World Heritage sites, the temples of this region, namely the Virupaksha, the Mallikarjuna and the Kashi Vishwanatha shrines in Pattadkal, the Lad Khan and Durga temples in Aihole and numerous cave temples in Badami are some of the most well preserved specimens of Chalukyan architecture. In fact, they are counted amongst the most beautiful heritage structures in the country and annually attract thousands of visitors.

(2) The development of Kannada: With nearly 4 crore speakers, Kannada is amongst the forty most spoken languages in the world. Spoken primarily in the state of Karnataka in southern India, it has a history of nearly two millennia. Though the language got its independent script during the Kadamba era, it was in the reign of the Badami Chalukyas when it became popular. The large number of Kannada inscriptions attributed to the kings and emperors of this dynasty are a clear indication that Kannada was not only the official language of the Vatapi court but it was also widely understood by a large section of their subjects. Besides, their closest allies - the Western Gangas too were great patrons of the language.

Of course, the contribution of preceeding dynasties as well as those who succeeded the Badami Chalukyas viz the Kadambas, the Rashtrakutas, the Gangas, the Kalyani Chalukyas, the Hoysalas and the Vijaynagar Empire in the development of Kannada too is immense; some will argue that several of the most important literary works were written much after the glitter and pomp of the Vatapi court had passed into the history books. However, in many ways, they were continuing the tradition that began first at the Banvasi and which was taken to an all new level during the days of the Badami kings.

(3) Stabilizing Deccan: The first empire builders based out of medieval Deccan, the Badami Chalukyas, at their height were the masters of the entire peninsular region, stretching from southern Rajasthan to Kanyakumari. The greatest ruler of this dynasty, Pulakeshi II led a mighty army on campaign across southern India, banishing his rivals and forging diplomatic ties with others; not so surprisingly, he is widely considered to be one of the most able monarchs in the history of the country. Though none of his illustrious successors succeeding in building an empire as strong as his, they managed to hold on to their domain in spite of being at constant state of war with their neighbors. The rulers of this dynasty were efficient administrators; during their reign, the core of the empire was largely peaceful. In fact, for nearly two centuries, the Badami Chalukyas provided much needed stability to Deccan which helped in creating an atmosphere conducive for the growth of art, architecture and literature. Moreover, during this time, trade flourished and prosperity prevailed as mentioned in the memoirs of Hiuen Tsang.

(4) Keeping the invaders at bay: Perhaps, one of the glorious moment in the history of entire Southern India came when Chalukyan monarch Pulakeshi II repulsed the invasion of the Emperor Harshavardhan of Kannauj on the banks of the Narmada river. It is one of the few rare instances in antiquity when peninsula was able to defend itself from the attacks of the rulers of the Gangetic plain. What makes this victory remarkable is that Harsha was no ordinary king; he was the undisputed Overlord of Northern India and had a vast army consisting of hundreds of elephants. About a century later, his namesake - Avanijanashraya Pulakeshi who was a Chalukyan prince governing Lata, saw off an invasion mounted by the Arabs in the west during the reign of Vikramaditya II. And that is not all; the Badami rulers also checked the rising powers of the Pallavas of Kanchipuram in the south.

The period between 7^th century and 11^th century was the time when Southern India was much more powerful and stable than the rest of the country. While northern and western parts of the nation were split into several smaller kingdoms following the death of Harshavardhan, Deccan was ruled by two powerful and warring dynasties - the Chalukyas and the Pallavas. In course of time, the Rashtrakutas who are the political successors of the Badami clan even managed to capture Kannauj which was the richest city in contemporary Northern India.

(5) Establishing relationship with rulers outside the Sub-continent: So powerful were the Badami rulers that tales of their military strength and fame traveled much beyond the realm of the Indian Sub-continent. Pulakeshi II, the warrior king who beat Harshavardhan and died on the battlefield while fighting Pallava Narshimavarman I is believed to set up diplomatic relationship with the Persian court. Similarly, other kings who occupied the throne of Vatapi are said to have sent emissaries to China and weilded considerable influence in the politics of Sri Lanka too for a certain period. There are others who believe that Chalukyans had some form of contact with the Khmer kingdom in South East Asia. Though the evidence to confirm this claim is missing, there is no doubt that the Badami Chalukya rulers were one of the strongest players in South Asian politics during this period.

Read the complete series on Badami Chalukyas here (Link)

THE BADAMI CHALUKYAS - Part V

WHO IS THE 'SECOND' GREATEST CHALUKYAN EMPEROR?

Historians and scholars are unanimous in their opinion that Pulakeshi II, the fourth emperor in this illustrious line of rulers was not only the greatest monarch to have sat on the throne of Badami but also count him amongst the best rulers in the history of the country. The tragedies that unfolded in the last few years of his reign apart, he won a series of victories in his remarkable military career, the crowning glory of which was his outstanding win over Emperor Harshavardhan when he tried to invade the Deccan. Of course, this is just one aspect of his life; besides being a military genius, he was also an able administrator as confirmed by records of the Chinese pilgrim Xuangzang. However, the question that I would like to attempt to answer in this post is one that has intrigued me for long now - After Pulakeshi II, who is the 'second greatest' Chalukyan emperor? In my opinion, there are five major contenders and over the course of this post, I would like to evaluate each one of these and try to arrive at a 'satisfactory' conclusion.

The first of these is Mangalesa, the uncle and immediate predecessor of Immadi Pulakeshi. Many will be surprised by the fact that I have included him in this exercise; after all, he is not spoken about in 'high regards' even in the dynastic records that generally tend to overrate the achievements of even the 'weakest' of the kings. The reason for him being 'overlooked' in the Chalukyan inscriptions, of course is pretty clear. His refusal to hand over the reins of the government to his nephew when the latter came of age is largely seen as 'act of betrayal' and a display of 'extreme selfishness'. Though he is wrong if you consider the 'law of primogeniture' but I have chosen to ignore this since I believe that his contribution in strengthening the Badami Chalukya clan has largely been overlooked.

Although he inherited a pretty stable kingdom, Mangalesa's conquests along the western coast are extremely important as far as the history of this clan is concerned. Apart from checking the ambitions of chiefs in the region and forcing them to submit to the Vatapi court, it also gave the Chalukyas access to the ports like Goa which were important centres of trade, especially in Arabian horses. Moreover, he was, in my opinion, the first king of Badami to pursue a policy of territorial expansion. His victory over the Kalachuris helped in adding areas in modern day Maharashtra to the Chalukyan kingdom. However, the reason why he fails in the race to be the 'second' best is that in spite of being in power for over a decade he failed to defend his throne against his nephew. This clearly shows that there was a strong coterie in the royal court that opposed Mangalesa and he failed in keeping a watch over their activities.

Another Chalukyan monarch who makes a strong case for himself is Vinayaditya - the sixth ruler of this clan. If the dynastic records are to be believed, he led a strong army and prevailed over a powerful king in the North. Thus while Pulakeshi was successful in repulsing Harsha's invasion, his grandson is credited to have crossed the Narmada and defeated a strong king ruling in the area of the Gangetic plain. He is also hailed as yielding supremacy over the kings of faraway lands like Persia, Ceylon and Kamera which some historians identify as the Khmer kingdom in modern day Cambodia. The problem however is that, at present we have no credible source to corroborate these rather tall claims which sound more like figment of imagination of a royal poet intend to glorify his master's achievements. We still do not have any information about the North Indian ruler who was beaten by Vinayaditya nor is there any mention in the history of Persia and Cambodia that their rulers paid tribute to the Badami kings. Also, in case the dynastic records are right, then Vinayaditya might well be the greatest of all the Chalukyan rulers surpassing even the famous Immadi Pulakeshi.

Most of the Badami Chalukyan kings had imperialistic ambitions and waged wars to win more territories and wealth. A notable exception to this was the third contender - Vijayaditya. His 37 year long reign was the longest for any ruler of his family and was marked by general peace and prosperity. In fact, it was also in the last days of his career that the family won a huge victory over their arch rivals - the Pallavas of Kanchi. Though I place him higher over the likes of Mangalesa and Vinayaditya, I still believe that he was not the 'second' best ruler of this dynasty. The reason is simple; I believe that for a ruler to be in the 'great' club, a ruler needs to be a great general and an efficient administrator. While Vijayaditya gets full marks for administration, the fact remains that as of now, we are not aware of any of his major military exploits. The lone campaign against the Pallavas too was headed by the crown prince about whom we will discuss next.

Vikramaditya II, the last of the great Chalukyan kings did something that even Pulakeshi could not; he managed to comprehensively defeat the Pallavas, not once, not twice but on three different occasions. The first of these was as the crown prince during the reign of his father Vijayaditya, the second as the King and third was an expedition led by his son Kirtivarman II. The death of Pulakeshi II on the battle field at the hands of Narsimhavarman I, the subsequent Pallava sacking of Vatapi and the inscription that their king left behind there were a great cause of embarrassment for this family. It was Vikramaditya's triple victories that finally ended this humiliation. Moreover, unlike the Pallavas, the Chalukyas did not ransack their capital; in fact, the Chalukyan emperor left his own inscription in Kanchi wherein it is mentioned that he made several grants to the temples and the priests, clearly indicating that he was a considerate monarch too. Besides, it was during his reign that Avanjijanasraya Pulakeshi of the Lata branch stemmed the advances of an Arab army. Thus, as far as warfare is concerned, Vikramaditya II is perhaps next only to Immadi Pulakeshi as far as the Badami Chalukyas are concerned.

So, is he the 'second' greatest? Ahh, I don't think so. The Chalukyan Empire crumbled within a decade after the death of Vikramaditya II and the seeds of destruction were sowed during his time. Though he won a major victory over the Arabs in the north, I think that this ruler concentrated most of his energies in the south. So determined was he in destroying the Pallavas that he in a sense ignored the meteoric rise of two families in this part of the world - the Rashtrakutas under Dantidurga and the Pandyas who would eventually diminish the glory of the Badami court. Like Pulakeshi II, the constant wars that he waged would have taken a toll on the state exchequer. Lastly, an important mistake that he made was that so involved was he in the politics of southern Deccan that he completely ignored the northern frontier.

The final contender in this race is Pulakeshi's own son Vikramaditya I. As mentioned earlier, after the defeat and death of his father, the great Pallava emperor Narshimavarman I captured and sacked Vatapi. For a period of 13 years, the Chalukyan capital remained in the hands of their bitter rivals. It was a critical period in the history of this dynasty and our understanding of it as yet is quite limited. All we are sure about is that it was Vikramaditya II who succeeded in driving the Kanchi army out of Badami and restoring the Chalukyan pride to some extent. Thus in some ways, he rebuilt the Vatapi kingdom following its devastation at the hands of Narshimavarman I. In his 25 year long reign as the monarch, he is said to have defeated the Pandyas, the Chola sand the Cheras who had allied with the Kanchi king during the Chalukya-Pallava conflict. Also, we know from inscriptions that he continued to get tribute from the Latas, the Gujjaras and the Malavas. Hence, except for Vengi which was by now an independent kingdom, the extent of his empire was next only to his father. He also undertook a campaign against the Kanchi kings but we are not sure as to what was the ultimate result of this conflict as both sides claim victory.

Unlike his namesake, Vikramaditya I could never achieve a complete victory over the Pallavas. However, in my opinion, that cannot be a yardstick to measure greatness. If it was not for him, the Badami Chalukya dynasty would have passed into oblivion following the death of Pulakaeshi II. He literally rebuilt the kingdom from pieces, pushed out the Pallavas and reaffirmed his family's hold over regions up to Southern Gujarat. He was vigilant enough to check the ambitions of his feudatories and the empire survived for nearly a century after his death. Of course, we cannot deny that he was lucky enough to have strong successors like Vinayaditya, Vijayaditya and Vikramaditya II. But then, had it not been for the strong leadership provided by him during the time of crisis, the Chalukyan power would have ended with the death of Pulakeshi II.

Thus, I believe that Immadi Pulakeshi's son and successor Vikramaditya I who was the next best ruler to have occupied the Badami throne followed closely by his great grandson Vikramaditya II at number three.

Read the complete series on Badami Chalukyas here (Link)

THE BADAMI CHALUKYAS - Part IV

THE HARSHA - PULAKESHI WAR

Please Note: This is a fictional account of the war fought between Harsha Vardhan and Pulakeshi II on the banks of the river Narmada.

A day before the impending battle, emperor Harsha Vardhan was gripped by anxiety; crowned at the tender age of 16, he had fought many battles in his remarkable military career and had subjugated a plethora of clans in the Gangetic plain. After avenging the death of his brother, he built the most extensive empire in the Sub-Continent ever since the fall of the Guptas; one that extended from Punjab in the west to Bengal in the east. Yet, he knew that the upcoming battle would be the most difficult one that he had fought so far. After all, the skirmishes that had taken place between the two sides over the last fortnight had proved that beating the might Karnataka-bala army would be far from an easy task. It had been over a month since the ruler of Kannauj had left his capital with an entourage consisting of over 40,000 well-trained soldiers, 5,000 choicest cavalry and 300 war elephants on his southern campaign. In fact, the entire caravan including the supply wagons extended for nearly three kilometers from one end to another; it was an entire city on the move, leaving everyone who had witnessed this spectacle 'spell bound'. After crossing the mighty Narmada, Harsha set up his camp on its banks and fortified his position.

Historians and scholars are divided over the reason that prompted the northern Samrat to launch this offensive into the Deccan. Most believe that after conquering the plains, it was but natural for a strong king like him to venture into the south in a bid to fulfill his imperialistic ambitions. Though Harsha was a Buddhist, he was certainly not averse to war. One after the other, his vast army had beaten a host of rulers up to the Narmada frontier and it was but natural for him to expand his horizon and look to extend his territories into the peninsular region, thereby emulating the successes that emperors like Ashoka the Great and Kaniska had enjoyed before him. Others say that it was the submission of central Indian dynasties like the Latas, the Gujaras and the Malavas to the Badami court that irked Harsha. From his point of view, the Chalukyan king, by accepting to be the overlord of the above mentioned families based out of present day Gujarat and Rajasthan was infringing on 'his sphere of influence'. This, in his opinion had to be checked or else several of his own sub-ordinates could do the same.

Three miles down south, in the enemy camp, King Pulakeshi II was finalizing his strategy for the battle. The fourth king to occupy the Vatapi throne, he had proved to be an efficient ruler and a brilliant general in his career so far. After emerging victorious following the civil war, not only was he able to consolidate his position but after a spate of military conquests, he became the undisputed ruler of the upper half of the peninsula. His forces, fighting under the Varaha emblem had humbled other strong regional chiefs and forced them to accept his suzerainty. However, this was the defining moment of his life; while the odds were stacked against him, a victory against Harsha would bring fame and immortality, something that all monarchs crave for. On the other hand, a defeat would bring ignominy and humiliation in form of a hefty annual tribute that had to be paid to the king of Kannauj. In his tent that also served as the war room, he along with his brother Kubuja Vishnuvardhana, his Sandhivigrahika (Foreign Minister), some senior generals and war veterans discussed the plans for the next morning when the great armies of the north and south would meet on the Ranabhoomi. They were aware that Harsha would unleash his fleet of war elephants to break the Chalukyan ranks and devised a strategy to counter it. As the meeting concluded, Ravikirti - the royal poet who witnessed the meeting remarked, "Tomorrow, the magnitude of the victory of the forces of the Prithvi-Vallabha (Pulakeshi) would be such that King Harsha will lose all his harsha (Happiness) and flee from the battle field".

Meanwhile, emperor Harsha had hardly slept that night; he got up early in the morning, performed a host of religious rituals so as to please the Gods and then changed into his military gear. After mounting his favorite war elephant - the Ayraavat, he directed his men to march on. The formation of the Vardhan army was fairly complex; the front line consisted of auxiliary troops that comprised of criminals and prisoners of war flanked on either side by a platoon of cavalry. Behind them were the men belonging to various feudatory kings and chieftains who had accepted Harsha's overlordship. Then came in the famed pachyderm unit followed by a line of archers. Behind them was the core of the Vardhan army at the center of which stood the Emperor surrounded by the royal guards whose main job was to take the King to safety in case of an emergency; the men on foot fought primarily with swords and spears. Finally, there was a line of reserve troops that would be called up in case any unit had to be supplemented urgently.

In the Chalukyan camp too, Pulakeshi performed several Vedic rites to gain the favor of the Gods which included an animal sacrifice. At the auspicious time fixed after consulting the best astrologers from his kingdom, he led his army from the front with the aim of repulsing Harsha's invasion. He divided his front line into 20 units, each comprising of well trained infantry and cavalry mounted on fine Arabic horses. Some of these divisions were headed by rulers of states that had pledged their allegiance to the Vatapi court including the Gangas, the Alupas and the Banas. Behind them was a band of archers, a platoon of elephants, followed by numerous lines of infantry and cavalry amidst which stood the King, overlooking and directing the war operations. As the two armies took their positions opposite each other, Harsha seemed to be impressed with the preparations of his adversary. He quipped to one of his commander, "This is going to be a long day on the battle field for all of us". Pulakeshi though, was unfazed; he scanned the enemy line looking for loop holes that he could leverage to his advantage.

Once the two sides were ready, it was Pulakeshi, much to Harsha's surprise who gave the first order for the attack. As the conch was blown, five units charged with patriotic fervor, marched towards the enemy while shouting their battle cry. The auxiliaries in the Varshan army who went to meet them were no match to the troops from Deccan known for their courage and valor. Many of them were cut down and the balance began to tilt in favor of the southerners. Harsha though, was not the one to give up so easily; he ordered his cavalry to charge towards the enemy units who by now had occupied the center. The tactic worked and the horse men were able to hold against the advancing Chalukyan forces. For the next hour or so, the battle seemed to be evenly poised; the entire field was strewn with mutilated bodies and the atmosphere was echoing with sounds of swords clashing against each other; while their compatriots were dying around them, the brave sons of Bharata, irrespective of whether they were fighting for Harsha or Pulakeshi, put up a strong fight. As the sub-ordinate kings fighting under Harsha were called in next, the king of Vatapi countered it by ordering more of his units to move towards the line of action. At one point of time though, the right side of the Chalukyan army was on the verge of collapse and a worried Pulakeshi requested his brother Vishnuvardhana to reinforce it. Leading from the front, the prince succeeded not only in holding back the opponents but also killed several enemy soldiers. As if the heat of the battle was not enough, the afternoon sun made matters worst for both sides.

It was at this juncture that Harsha signaled three lines of his elephant units to charge towards the Chalukyan army. Intoxicated with alcohol, the pachyderms wreaked havoc on the battle field, trampling soldiers on either sides as they ran towards the enemy ranks. It was now that Pulakeshi displayed his military acumen; he directed his archers to 'welcome' these beasts with 'fire arrows' dipped in oil. As the fire started descending on to them from the heavens, the pachyderms panicked; some of them even turned back and in the process ended up clashing with the subsequent lines causing a stampede. Still in disbelief, the Vardhan emperor ordered the rest of his elephants to hold on. As if to press home his advantage, Pulakeshi sent more troops to the front. Men on horses fought bravely against the stronger battle elephants and though many of them perished, they brought down several beasts too. Next, the Chalukya king ordered his own set of elephants to come to the forefront. Now that ruler of Vatapi could not use the services of his archers, Harsha had no option but to bring his remaining pachyderms to counter this latest enemy attack. Wave after wave, soldiers fighting for Harsha kept on attacking the men loyal to Pulakeshi. However, the latter were largely successful in holding out. The deadlock continued for another two hours and as the sun began to set on the horizon though, both kings asked their men to return back to their respective camps.

Isn't it a fact that while kings and generals declare war, it is the soldiers who die. On that fateful day in the first half of the sixth century, nearly 15,000 men were slain and thousands more were injured. About 60 elephants were killed; a majority of them belonging to Harsha. In this battle of the fittest, only the 'bravest of the brave' survived.

As the physicians were treating the injured, Harsha called an emergency meeting with his generals to discuss the future course of action. While some of his men wanted to continue the war against Pulakeshi, others argued that the cost involved in this endeavor would be enormous; even if they did earn a hard fought victory, it would be akin to a Pyrrhic victory. Considering that the tribes in the north-west were only waiting for an opportunity to strike, the war if pursued further could severely hamper the empire's defenses against the enemies in the north. After two hours of intense deliberations, the decision was made and Harha's dreams of an empire covering Deccan was gone forever.

In the Chalukyan camp, the mood was upbeat; though the soldiers knew that they had won the day, Pulakeshi a brilliant general himself, refused to drop the guard. He visited the wounded and addressed the gathering of his men where he thanked them for their bravery in defending his kingdom and urging them to be ready for battle the next day. As he was discussing the battle plans with his trusted aides, he received the news that emissaries from Harsha had arrived suing for peace. However, the Chalukyan king kept them waiting for over an hour as he discussed whether to continue the hostilities or not. The Vatapi ruler knew very well that the war could potentially drain his resources, leaving his kingdom vulnerable, both to internal as well as external forces. As his council concluded its meeting, Pulakeshi welcomed the guests and treated them with respect and dignity. He agreed to send his representatives to hold talks with Harsha and declare an instant end to the fighting provided that the Vardhan army would immediately retire to the northern bank of the Narmada.

As Harsha compiled to Pulakeshi's demand, the Chalukyan army moved up north and settled on the opposite bank. The negotiations that began the next day continued for a week. As per the terms of the treaty, the Narmada river was chosen as the boundary between the two empires. Harsha proclaimed himself Uttaradipathi (Lord of the North) while Pulakeshi took the title of Dakshinapathi (Lord of the South). Both rulers agreed to a gradual time bound withdrawal of troops from the front, exchanged ambassadors and promised to settle all future differences via dialogue. As a part of the peace process, the two mighty kings had a brief rendezvous too that lasted for a few minutes where they exchanged pleasantries and spoke of ways in increasing the trade between the two states. Though both were rivals, they had immense respect for each other and it showed in the manner in which the talks were conducted. Besides, the two also exchanged gifts as it was a custom during those times.

Two days later, Harsha left for his capital and took the bulk of his remaining army along. Technically, he had not lost the war. However, the bottom line was that he had failed to break into the peninsula. Nonetheless, he was happy that he had lost to a worthy foe. A day later, Pulakeshi began his return journey to Badami where he was received with much pomp and fare. Defying all odds, he had seized his glory; hence forth, he like Harsha would be known as an 'Emperor' and would be counted amngst the greatest rulers in the history of India.

Read the complete series on Badami Chalukyas here (Link)