KOZHIKODE DIARIES - Part 1

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE CITY OF SPICES

Situated along the coast of the Arabian in Northern Kerala, the port city of Kozhikode is the 'Pride of Malabar'. Serving as the gateway to the country during the Middle Ages, this city was known to different peoples by different names - Kalikoot (Arabs), Kalifo (Chinese), Kalikottai (Tamils), Kalikottae (Kanndigas) and Calicut (Europeans).

THE ORIGINS

Historians believe that the city was built sometime between the 11^th and the 13^th centuries by early Samoorthi kings. As per one account, the Udaiyavar (governor) of Ernad, a land locked province of the erstwhile Chera empire fought a war with his coastal neighbor, the Polatri of Polanad to seek an outlet to the coast so that he could build a trading post similar to Tondi, a rich port during the later Sangam period. The war which is believed to have lasted for 48 years ended with the victory for the Ernads and they established their new city near the famous Shiva temple at Tali. Another version says that the land around the city was given by the last Chera ruler Perumal Chera to Mana Vikrama, the governor of Ernad for the services he offered in expelling the Cholas from Kerala.

Whatever be the origin, the newly established town grew to become one of the most busiest ports on the Malabar coast. The Ernad governor who had asserted his independence by then, moved his capital from Neddiyiruppu to Kozhikode and came to be known as the Samoorthi, which was later Europeanized as the 'Zamorin'. In the comming years, the Samoorthis and Kozhikode became synonymous with each other; the revenues generated from the trade here fueled he Samoorthi treasury enabling them to overpower their neighbors.

By the end of the 13^th century, Kozhikode was on the contemporary international trade map and the Samoorthis whose prestige had spread far and wide, were the undisputed masters of northern Kerala. For centuries, the fate of Calicut and its Zamorins were intertwined.

THE GOLDEN AGE

During the middle ages, there were two major trading routes in the hitherto 'known' world - the much fabled Silk Route and the lesser known Indian ocean trade route. Though the land based route is more famous, historians of the opinion that maritime trade which covered an area extending from the west coast of Africa to China and Indonesia, far outstretched its former, both in terms of the money involved as well as the quantity of goods traded. Though the origins of Kozhikode may not be clear as yet, what we do know is that by the 14^th century, it was one of the most important centres of the Indian Ocean trade.

The chronicles of several famous contemporary travelers including Moroccan traveler Ibn Batuta, Chinese sailor Ma Huan, Persian ambassador Abdur Razzak and Italian merchant Nicolo de' Conti paint a beautiful picture of the port city. Their records suggest that spices of the best quality, Calicut's most famous commodity attracted ships from far away lands including Africa, Persia, Arabia and China. Merchants from distant lands, speaking different languages, following different faiths and practicing distant customs settled here, making Kozhikode a melting pot of cultures. In fact, the great Chinese Admiral Zheng He is believed to have died in Calicut in CE 1433.

The liberal attitude and the secular outlook of the Zamorins encouraged people from all over the world to settle herewhich greatly contributed in making the city the premiere port city of the Subcontinent in this period. The revenue generated from the port and the aid provided by the Chinese and Muslim merchants helped the Zamorin overrun much of Malabarbesides subjugating the chiefs of faraway kingdoms like Kochi and Kollam.

THE TRYST WITH EUROPEANS

The landing of Portuguese admiral Vasco da Gama on the west coast of India in May, 1498 is considered an important milestone in world history. In fact, its implication were first felt in Kozhikode as it was at Kappad, 22 km north of the city where da Gama first set foot on Indian soil.

The relations between the Zamorin and the Portuguese were cordial in the initial years. However, soon the two fell apart as the former tried to monopolize the maritime trade at the expense of the Arabs who had long been the Zamorin's trusted allies. All throughout the 16^th century, the two sides were often at war with each other; the fightback on the side of Kozhikode was led by the Kunhali Marakkar - the title of the Muslim naval chief of the Samoothris. In CE 1510, the much celebrated Portuguese admiral Alfonso de Albuquerque invaded Calicut and burnt it down. However, the forces of the Zamorin mounted a splendid counter attack and expelled the intruders in spite of considerable losses. Fights and skirmishes of these kinds continued till CE 1580s when the two parties managed to solve most of their conflicts. Soon, the Dutch and the English too joined the bandwagon and arrived here in Nov 1604 and 1615 respectively.

Meanwhile, the sixteenth and the seventh centuries changed the fortunes of Kozhikode forever. The constant wars with the Portuguese and the end of the Arab dominance over the Indian Ocean trade diminished its prestige to some extent but it continued to be amongst the Subcontinent's busiest ports. During the same period, down south, a new port established with support of the Portuguese in CE 1500 began challenging Kozhikode's status as the most important trading center of Kerala. Though the Kings of Kochi were initial vassals of the Zamorin, by mid 17th century, they had asserted their independence and refused to accept the overlordship of the rulers of Calicut.

THE DECLINE

The wars with the Europeans, their monopolizing of the Indian Ocean trade as well as the rise of Cochin as a major port in the region adversely affected the fortunes of Kozhikode and the Zamorins. The major blow though came in CE 1764 when Hyder Ali, the de-facto ruler of Mysuru invaded city as his modern army overran Malabar. Unable to bear the humiliation of this defeat, the Zamorin committed suicide by locking himself in his palace on the banks of the Mananchira and setting it on fire.

The Mysuru occupation continued till CE 1791 during which a sustained guerilla campaign mounted by crown prince Krishna Varma and his cousin Ravi Varma devastated all attempts of Hyder Ali and later, his son and successor Tipu Sultan to subjugate Malabar. Unfortunately, the end of the Mysuru threat brought little joy for the Zamorins, as the British entered the scene. By CE 1799 when the English had killed Tipu Sultan, the last of the major kingdoms to pose a challenge for British supremacy in lower Deccan, the Zamorin was reduced to a petty pensioner of the Company. Malabar became a district under the British with Kozhikode serving as its capital.

THE REVIVAL

After seeing off a rebellion led by Krishna Varma, the crown prince of the erstwhile Zamorin kingdom, the entire Malabar region came under the rule of the East India Company. In spite of the numerous Mappila revolts that continued till 1920s, Kozhikode continued to be firmly held by the British. Post independence, as Malayalam dominant areas were merged into a single state, the once famous port city was made a part of Kerala.

Though the city may have lost some of its former glory, the busy by lanes of the Big Bazaar road, lined with shops selling spices, dry fruits and other commodities are reminiscent of a time when Calicut was one of the busiest ports of the Indian Ocean trade. The mosques that are heavily influenced by local Malyali architecture and Churches built during the colonial era are testimony to the Kozhikode's secular outlook, a tradition that it has held on to, long after the end of the Zamorin kings. Once the 'Gateway to India', Calicut continues to remain one of the most beautiful and colorful cities of the country, still attracting visitors from far and wide.

THE GOA STATE MUSEUM - PART 4

THE CULT OF MAHISASURA MARDINI

Goa was an important center of the Shakti cult in the medieval times and the Goddess was worshiped in the form of the Bhagavati or Mahishasura-Mardini. The cult still has a large number of followers who believe that the Goddess is the Supreme Power unlike popular Hindu belief that it is the Trimurti consisting of Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Protector and Shiva the Destroyer which controls the cosmos. In this form, the Devi is seen slaying the fierce demon - Mahishasura or the Buffalo Demon with her trishul.

The most beautiful of the three Mahishasura Mardini sculptures displayed in the Gooa State Museum is the one from Surla-Tar in Bicholim belonging to the 14 ^th century. The four armed Goddess carved out of Compact Soap Stone is standing with the demon in the form of a buffalo below Her left feet. A well embellished 'prabhavali' has a 'kirti mukha' (Victory Face) at the centre is carved behind her. The Devi is grabbing the demon with Her left hand whereas Her right arm is broken; She holds a trishul in Her upper right hand and a 'Shank' (Conch) in the upper left hand. A lion - the vahana of the Goddess is seen attacking the demon from behind. A look at this image and you realize that certainly the contemporary Goan sculptors were masters of their trade.

Mahishasura Mardini - 14th century AD

The 14^th century Talc Chlorite Schist sculpture of the Goddess found at Torxem in Pernem taluka is in fact a 'true' Mahishasura Mardini image for the fact that here, She is seen goring the buffalo with the trishul in Her right hand. Like the revious image, she is seen holding the demon's tongue with Her left hand; she holds a sword in Her upper right hand and a shield in the upper left hand like a medieval warrior. A well-decorated 'prabhavali' in the back ground lacks a 'kirti mukha'. Now that is strange and so is the absence of the lion!

Mahishasura Mardini - 14th century AD

The much older Talcose Chlorite Schist stone sculpture of the Devi was found at Assoledem in Quepem taluka of Goa and belongs to the 12^th century AD. The four armed Goddess holds a broken sword in Her upper left hand and a shield in the upper right hand. She is seen crushing the demon Mahishasura with Her right hand and simultaneously thrusting her trishul into him. Unlike the previous two idols, the demon is shown here in a human form, sitting upon a buffalo. He is holding a sword and a shield in his hand. The idol has a beautiful 'prabhavali' and a 'kirti mukha' on the top. A lion and a 'chauri' (fly whisk) bearer are seen on the bottom left and right of the image respectively.

Mahishasura Mardini - 12th century AD

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More from the series: GOA STATE MUSEUM

(1) An Introduction (Link)

(2) The Hero Stones (Link)

(3) The Sati Stones (Link)

(4) The Gajalaxmi Stones (Link)

(5) The Cult of Mahishasura Mardini (Link)

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Reference: Catalogue of the Remarkable Sculptures in the Goa State Museum

THE GOA STATE MUSEUM - PART 2

THE SATI STONES

Sati as a practice was prevalent in most parts of medieval India and Goa certainly was not an exception. This brutal act of the wife killing herself by plunging into the funeral pyre of her late husband was widely popular and the women who adhered to this custom were celebrated as deities with their blessings being sought by the womenfolk in times of need. Much like the hero stones, Sati Stones commemorate the supreme 'sacrifice' of the brave ladies who chose to end their own lives after the death of their husbands, thereby upholding their chastity and loyalty towards their companion, at least that is what the general view of the society was.

The Sati cum Hero Stone - 14th century AD (left) and Sati Stone - 13th century (right)

Of the four Sati Stones in the Goa State Museum, the most impressive is the one that was found in Majorda in Salcette taluka which belongs to the 14 ^th century. This weathered exhibit made of Talc Chlorite Schist is in fact, a Sati cum hero stone and such combinations are not very common. Belonging to the Vijaynagara - Adil Shahi period, it depicts a man in 'Anjalimudra' (gesture of adoration) in the middle with one woman, probably his wife in 'Abhayamudra' (gesture of reassurance) on his left and an attendant to his right. In the next section, the hero is seen committing self-sacrifice as the musicians perform whereas the topmost panel depicts a couple worshiping a Shiv Linga. A 'Shikara' crowns the stone slab and on either side of it, one can see carvings of the Sun and the crescent Moon.

Then there is another one made of Meta Basalt stone which has a rather peculiar shape. It consists of a pillar out of which emerges the right hand of a woman, decorated with bangles. Between the hand and the pillar is a couple whereas a motif of lotus is carved on to the pillar which is the symbol of purity. This exhibit belongs to the thirteenth century and was found at Rivona in Sanguem taluka.

A more elaborately carved Sati stone, similar to the one mentioned above which belongs to the sixteenth century is also displayed. Unlike the above mentioned exhibit, this depicts a couple below the hand. Then there is another sculpture which captures a lady with long flowing air, all set to jump into the fire and commit Sati.

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More from the series: GOA STATE MUSEUM

(1) An Introduction (Link)

(2) The Hero Stones (Link)

(3) The Sati Stones (Link)

(4) The Gajalaxmi Stones (Link)

(5) The Cult of Mahishasura Mardini (Link)

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Reference: Catalogue of the Remarkable Sculptures in the Goa State Museum

THE SILAHARAS - Part II

THE SOUTH KONKAN SILAHARAS

Ganapati - Silahara Period (8th cent.)
Pilar Museum - Goa Velha

The first amongst the three Silahara kingdoms of the middle ages, the South Konkan Silaharas or the Goa Silaharas ruled areas of modern day Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra between the eighth and the eleventh centuries, chiefly as the feudatories of the mighty Rashtrakutas who were the preeminent political dynasty in much of the Sub-continent during this time. Like most 'minor' dynasties that rose and fell during this age, our knowledge about these kings, their administration, the prevalent socio-economic conditions and so on is meager to say the least; as a matter of fact, most information regarding the political history of this dynasty comes from the few copper plates that have been found so far, the most famous being that of one Rattaraja - probably, the last king of this dynasty which were found in the village of Kharepattan in the Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. These plates are no less than the famous 'Rosetta Stone' since they give a detailed genealogy of the whole clan beginning from the man who established this kingdom and his subsequent successors up to Rattaraja including their exploits. Of course, relying completely on this to rewrite the political history of this clan could be a costly mistake. However, in absence of other credible sources, validating the information present in these plates to reconstruct the South Konkan Silahara history is not possible.

Gokapattanam or Govapuri (Goa Velha) along the Zuari River is said to have been their capital with some historians stating that it was later moved to some prominent place in the Sawantwadi - Ratnagiri region. This assumption seems to be correct since the Kharepattan plates mention of the presence of a separate ruling family at Chandor which is not very far from Goa Velha. Though this family, of which we do not have any specific information was generally sub-ordinate to the Goa Silaharas, there have been instances recorded of hostilities between the two. As such, it would have been a strategic blunder for the capital to be so close to Chandor. Hence the observation of the South Konkan Silahara capital being in somewhere in modern day Ratnagiri region seems to make a lot of sense although the historical records to back this claim by be lacking at present.

THE ORIGINS

Like all other Silahara kingdom, the kings of the South Konkan branch claim to be descendants of King Jamutivahana - the mythical Vidyadhara king who is the prime protagonist of the Sanskrit epic Nagananda which is attributed to the great Vardhana Emperor Harsha. In this drama, the wise king who gives up his empire and retires to the forests, offers himself as a sacrifice to save the serpent race from the wrath of the Garuda. As the mythical bird realizes its mistake, Jamutivahan is revived from the dead and Garuda promises to end his annihilation of the snakes, bringing 'ananda' (joy) to the Nagas (serpents).

While the records of the branches at Thana and Kolhapur say that they were natives of the town of Ter, the Goan Silaharas records mention relations with the Kings of Simhala. People familiar with history would naturally and rightly identify Simhala with Ceylon or modern day Sri Lanka. However, Altekar suggests that Simhala here meant 'Tiswadi' - the island along the Goan coast on which the city of Panjim is situated. In fact, this conclusion seems to be correct since Goa was an integral part of the South Konkan Silahara kingdom. More interestingly, if the above conclusion is correct, Silaharas may actually be the first native Goan kings.

SANAPHULLA - THE FOUNDER

Ganesh - Silahara period (10 cent.)
The Goa State Museum, Patto - Panjim

As per the Kharepattan plates, the kingdom was founded by Sanaphulla who was granted the land between the Sahaya mountains (possibly the Sahayadris or the Western Ghats) and the Arabian Sea by the Rashtrakuta Emperor Krishna I in the mid-eight century. In fact, the Southern Silahara kings continued to owe their allegiance to their overlords at Manyakheta till the end of that clan. The claims in the plates suggests that Sanaphulla aided his 'master' Krishna I who was the second ruler in the Rashtrakuta clan, in subjugating the Konkan coast which was under the influence of the Badami Chalukyas till the downfall of the dynasty in AD 753. As the emperor left after conquering the coast, he perhaps appointed Sanaphulla as his 'Viceroy' or 'Governor', thereby establishing the dynasty.

Another scenario that is possible is that following the fall of the Chalukyan empire due  to the defeats inflicted upon them by the Pandyas and the Rashtrakutas, Sanaphulla who may be hailed from Goa, gathered a fighting force and drove away the Chalukyan defenders or their allies who guarding the rich port city of Govapuri. After expanding his influence in nearby areas along the coast, he might have submitted to the authority of the Rashtrakutas who were fast emerging as the undisputed masters of the Deccan. Though Goa was a prosperous region back then and a lots of money flowed in due to the international sea trade, the nascent kingdom stood no chance in front of the strong Rashtrakutan army. Moreover, there would definitely have been other contenders who were eager to bring the port city under their control. Probably, this is why he voluntarily accepted Rashtakuta overlordship and obtained their permission to rule the southern Konkan region by promising to pay an annual tribute and assist them as and when needed.

THE CHRONOLOGY

Sr. No.	King	Reign
1	Sanaphulla	765-795
2	Dhammayira	795-820
3	Aiyapparaja	820-845
4	Avasara I	845-870
5	Adityavarman	870-895
6	Avasara II	895-920
7	Indraraja	920-945
8	Bhima	945-970
9	Avasara III	970-995
10	Rattaraja	995-1020

a. This is the chronology of the South Konkan Silahara dynasty as given in the Kharepattan plates of Rattaraja.

b. In the absence of accurate details regarding the regnal years of the above mentioned kings, historians generally attribute a reign of 25 years to each of them which is the average reign for Indian kings ruling in the medieval times.

THE KINGDOM STABILIZES

Sanaphulla's successor was Dhammayira who is said to have consolidated his family's hold over the nascent kingdom by erecting a fort at Vallipattana or Ballipatana. Though there is no conclusion, historians have identified this port with places like Velim in South Goa, Kharepattan in Ratnagiri district and so on. It seems to have been a bustling port during this time and and well connected to other nearby ports of Chandrapur (Chandor, Goa) and Chemul (Chaul, Maharashtra). Moreover, the Kharepattan plates also mention ships from far and wide docking in its yard and the taxes that they paid to the Southern Silahara treasury. Some believe that in course of time, Vallipattana could even have served as a second capital of their kingdom apart from the first seat of power at Goa Velha.

Aiyaparaja, the third king in this line is said to have won a victory over the local ruler of Chandrapur. This was perhaps a major boost to the Silahara kingdom. Firstly, this victory would have helped in maintaining their supremacy in the neighborhood. Moreover, Chandor was a prosperous port having trading contacts with other coastal towns along the Western coastline and bringing it under the influence of the Silaharas would have earned them certain financial benefits too.

Silaharas - Silver Coins (11th - 12th Cent.)
The Goa State Museum, Patto - Panjim

ADITYAVARMAN - THE GREATEST SOUTH KONKAN SILAHARA KING

Though the Kharepattan plates may refer to Avasara I as the 'Vanquisher of the Enemies', it was his son - Adityavarman who in my opinion was the greatest ruler of this clan. The contemporary North Konkan Silahara ruler - Lagu Kapardin II was still a minor and Adityavarman used this opportunity to increase his supremacy over most of the Konkan region. As per the plates, he is said to have offered assistance to the rulers of Chandrapur and Chemul. If we consider these two places as the northern and the southern limits of the South Silahara 'sphere of influence', then it means that Adityavarman was the master of nearly 500 kilometer of Konkan coast, leaving only the Mumbai-Thana region for the Northern Silaharas. Thus the kingdom reached its zenith under him.

GATHERING OF THE CLOUDS ON THE HORIZON

Adityavarman was succeeded by Avasara II, Indraraja and Bhima who is recorded as being 'ambitious'. It was during his reign that the Goa Kadamba dynasty rose and captured Chandor. Since the Kadambas were loyal to the Kalyana Chalukyas who were the sworn enemies of the Rashtrakutas - the overlords of the South Konkan Silaharas, the two clans are believed to have been hostile towards each other. Bhima is said to have won a victory over the first Kadambas king Shashthadeva or his son Chaturbhuja. However, this win was in no way decisive since it was the Goa Kadamba dynasty that would play a key role in bringing an end to the South Konkan Silahara kingdom.

As if the Kadamba takeover of Chandor was not enough, the Silaharas were delivered a crushing blow when the Rashtrakuta dynasty was overthrown by the Kalyana Chalukyas during the reign of Avasara III. Though most of the vassals of the Rashtrakutas had switched their allegiance to Tailapa II by now, the Goan Silaharas continued to be loyal to them. In fact, the Kharepattan grant of Avasara's successor - Rattaraja contains the genealogy of the Malked clan, a right reserved only for the imperial overlords. By the time this grant was given, it was over two decades since the last of the Rashtrakuta kings were deposed yet the Goa Silaharas seem to have had some sense of gratitude and affection towards them which is strange. Thus while the North Konkan Silaharas accepted the suzerainty of the new rulers of Deccan, namely the Chalukyas, their counterparts down south were still held up in the past and this proved to be a costly mistake. The demise of the Rashtrakutas and the emergence of the Goa Kadambas who had allied themselves with the Kalyana Chalukyas proved disastrous for the Silaharas of southern Konkan. A grant of this ruler named as the Chikkodi or the Pattanakuddi plate dated AD 988 is the earliest of the three land grants belonging to this clan which have been found so far.

THE END

Two grants of Avasara's son and successor - Rattaraja have been found so far. The first dated AD 1008 are the Kharepattan plates which record the grant of three villages namely Kushmandi, Asavanire and Vadagule to Atreya the Brahmin belonging to the Karkaroni branch of Mattamayura clan of Saiva sect for the worship of God Aveshvara. Another grant issued two years later records the grant of a plot in the village of Bhaktagrama and a garden of betel nut to Sankamaiya, son of the Brahmin Senavi Bagamaiya. This was one of the earliest mention of the Shenvi Brahmanas who went on to dominate the Goan society in the later periods.

The series of events that culminated in the demise of this dynasty are unclear; neither are we sure as to who the last Goan Silahara king was - Rattaraja or his immediate successor. Anyway, what we can tell for sure is that the refusal of these kings to acknowledge the supremacy of the Chalukyas would have not gone well with the latter. Moreover, the Kadambas too were sensing on an opportunity to settle scores with them. Whatever be the reason for it, it is pretty clear that Chalukya emperor Jayasimha II invaded the South Silahara kingdom and deposed its ruler while returning from a campaign against the Cholas, probably after Rattaraja renounced his allegiance to the Kalyana clan following the death of its ruler Satyasraya or Vikramaditya V. It is also possible that the invasion weakened the Goa Silaharas and soon after the Chalukyan army withdrew, the city of Govapuri was attacked and captured by the Kadambas who are considered to be the political successors to the Goa Silaharas.

THE RASHTRAKUTA - SOUTH SILAHARA RELATIONS

Naga - Silahara Period (10th cent.)
The Goa State Museum, Patto - Panjim

The relationship between the kingdom and their imperial overlords in Manyakheta is 'enigmatic' to say the least. The Southern Silaharas were fiercely loyal to the Rashtrakutas; at a time when the power equations in the Deccan were fast changing in the later half of the tenth century and the Kalyana Chalukyas were the devouring vast swathes of the erstwhile Rashtrakuta empire, the kingdom continued to swear its allegiance to the Manyakheta court. In fact, even after the termination of this glorious line of rulers by Taila II, the grants of the Goan Silahara kings continued to begin with the genealogy of the now 'dead' clan. A copper plate of Rattaraja mentions with regret as to how the Rashtrakuta family was crushed by the weight of the mountain that fell on it in the form of Taila. It seems that the Silaharas later accepted the suzerainty of the Chalukyas but were doomed once they raised the banner of revolt leading to the invasion of the Goa region by Jayasimha II.

Though there are no questions regarding the loyalty of the Silaharas towards the Rashtrakutas, the relation between the two families is not as per the general convention of these times. For example, a vassal state was suppose to send in troops whenever its overlord undertook an expedition or was defending his sovereignty. We know for sure that the Rashtrakutan army fought many wars and their records do mention the sub-ordinate kings who helped them in their battles; however, the Southern Silaharas find no mention in all these records which is strange. After all, a dynasty that mourns the demise of its imperial masters in its personal records is expected to stand by them during their hour of need, isn't it? Moreover, we have no record of any sort of matrimonial alliance between the two families which too was a norm in most cases. Hopefully, our understanding of the nature of the relations between these two dynasties will enhance after more records of the Southern Silaharas are discovered in the future.

THE LEGACY

An important point that historians tend to miss while writing about this kingdom is the role that it would have played in the rich and prosperous Indo-Arab trade. We know that the Arabs were in contact with the Rashtrakutas as the Arab text Silsilatuttavarikh names them as one of the four greatest empires in the contemporary world. With the ships from the Gulf dominating the Arabian Sea region during this time, most of the trade or diplomatic relations between the two worlds i.e. India and Arabia would have happened through the seas. As the port cities in Konkan, Goa and Karavali (coastal Karnataka) were under the rule of states sub-ordinate to the Rashtrakutas, most of this trade would have happened here. Thus, both the Silahara kingdoms would have served as the 'Gateway to India' for the Arabs.

Medieval ports like Chandrapur (Chandor), Gokapattna (Goa Velha), Vallipattnam, Kharepattan, Chemul (Chaul), Puri (Elephanta) and Kalyan which were under the influence of the two Silahara clans were definitely the melting pot where these two worlds, each rich not only in terms of money but in science and culture as well, would converge benefiting both. From the perspective of the Silaharas, the trade would have been a rich source of revenue. The Kharepattan plates mention the Arabic ships docking at the port of Vallipattnam and the taxes that they paid to the authorities there.

THE SILAHARAS - Part I

THE THREE SILAHARA KINGDOMS

One of the least known dynasties to have ruled over the country, the Silaharas ruled over three, possibly related kingdoms in Western India between the 8^th and the 12^th century AD. I would not be surprised if most of us, even those taking a keen interest in Indian history would not have heard much about this clan. In fact, in the state of Goa, a place which was the very epicenter of the Southern Silahara kingdom, the dynasty just finds a few passing references in the state's history textbooks.

Although each of these three kingdoms lasted for over 150 years each, the kings were chiefly the feudatories to other powerful families ruling over contemporary Deccan like the Rashtrakutas or the Kadambas. Much against the general norm that existed around this time, it seems that these kings did not participate in the military campaigns of their 'overlords'; neither do we have any record of their matrimonial alliance with their 'masters'. Perhaps that was the reason that not much is said or written about them in the dynastic records of the other powerful houses. The paucity of material in the form of inscriptions and monuments from this era means that our understanding of the Silaharas is rather limited

THE THREE KINGDOMS

The earliest amongst these three kingdoms were the South Konkan Silaharas or the Goan Silaharas who ruled modern day Goa between mid-eight century to the early eleventh century. Though the North Konkan Silaharas or the Thana Silaharas rose about half a century later when compared to their southern counterparts, their power lasted for nearly four and half centuries until it was absorbed by the Yadavas. The last of these three - the Kolhapur Silaharas began their rule sometime around AD 1000 and last for over two centuries and like the Thana kingdom was later defeated and extinguished by the Yadavas who undertook expansionist activities during the thirteenth century in modern day Maharashtra.

ORIGIN

Though the three kingdoms share the name - Silahara, we are not sure about what kind of relationship existed between them. The only thing that we know was common between them, apart from the name was the fact that they claimed to be the descendants of the mythical hero - Jimutavahana from the Nagananda which is attributed to the great king Harsh Vardhan. As per the story, the king Jimutavahana of the Vidhyadharas offered himself as 'ahara' (food) to the bird Garuda on a 'sila' (rock) to save the Nagas or serpents from destruction and hence the name - Sila-hara. Unlike the Chalukyas or the Yadavas who claim that to be descendants of Gods like Rama or Krishna, it is rather surprising to see the Silaharas 'chose' a not so famous ancestor. Perhaps, the Gods were only reserved for the more powerful families; just a thought!

The Goan Silaharas claimed to have originated from Simahala which either was Sri Lanka or Goa whereas the records of the other two houses say that they were natives of Tagara. The exact location of this medieval city is unknown with historians connecting it with Ter, Kolhapur and so on.

WERE THEY RELATED?

Other than the fact that all three Silahara clans claim to be the descendants of Jimutavahana, two families, namely the Thana Silaharas and the Kolhapur Silaharas also shared the Garuda emblem which cannot be brushed aside as mere coincidence.

Considering that the North Konkan Silahara dynasty began about forty years after the establishment of the Goan Silahara kingdom, it is possible that the founder of the former kingdom was a member from the royal family that ruled over Goa. Perhaps, the viceroy who was appointed to govern northern Konkan broke off all allegiance to Goa and founded a new kingdom. Similarly, the founder of the house at Kolhapur too was in some way related to either of the other two houses. However, these are just some speculations that I am making and there are no historical evidence to back these claims.

THE BADAMI CHALUKYA - Part VII

BOOKS ON THIS DYANSTY

Since the rule of the Badami Chalukyas culminated over 1,200 years ago, the information available regarding them in the forms of inscriptions and other historical accounts is fairly limited. As such, the books available on this subject too are relatively few as compared to 'modern' dynasties like the Mughals or the Marathas. Anyway, following is a list of books that I have read about this illustrious line of rulers during the last few months.

POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI - D P DIKSHIT

'Keep it simple and stick to the point' is the mantra that Professor Dikshit had adopted in his book on the early Chalukyas. Published by Abhinav Publications and priced at a nominal sum of Rs. 200/-, the 'Political History of the Chalukyas of Badami' is a bible for anybody interested in the glorious history of this dynasty. As you read this book, you can easily make out how much effort has gone into it; truly, Professor must be credited for painstakingly going through the inscriptions that have been unearthed in the past and referring to the works of other eminent historians who have researched on this subject before him. What makes this a must read for history lovers is that he, like a true historian, he has used the available information in answering some of the most complex questions regarding the Early Chalukyas to the best of his abilities while also questioning some previously held assumptions.

For example, as far as the rise of the Vatapi kingdom is concerned, it is generally believed that they defeated their former overlords - the Kadambas of Banavasi to lay the foundation of their kingdom. However, Professor Dikshit's view on this is completely different; in fact, it is 'radical' to say the least. However, the reasons that he gives in support of his argument are quite convincing, though we cannot be take them to be the gospel truth as yet. Similarly, his take on the regnal years of Mangalesa, the date of the Harsha - Pulakeshi II including the circumstances that led to it and most importantly, his take on the series of events in the 13 years when the Pallavas held Vatapi are 'insightful' to say the least. Besides giving us a detailed political history of the clan, the book also has three sections dedicated to other aspects including General Administration, Finance and Military Organization. Finally, the last chapter consists of list of Chalukyan inscriptions, their dates and the information that they provide us with. This is the first time that I am coming across something like this and I must say, I am quite impressed with it. Probably, it will be great if other historians too follow this approach while writing books.

THE CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI (SEMINAR PAPERS) - MYTHIC SOCIETY

In 1974, the Mythic Society - a well reputed library based out of Bangalore which takes a keen interest in history and anthropology hosted a seminar where it invited historians and scholars to present their works on the Badami Chalukyas. The papers presented by about 30 scholars was collected and later published in the form of a book, four years later. Even before I review the book, I as a lover of history must thank the Myhtic Society for their excellent initiative. Indian history will certainly be enriched if more such conferences and seminars are conducted on a regular basis across the country.

Coming back to the review, this was the first time that I was reading such a collection of research papers written by some of the most eminent historians of the 70s and I must say that I enjoyed it. One third of the 30 chapters in the book are regarding the political history of the dynasty. The information though not as detailed as in the previous book, is pretty good, especially for those who do not like being bombarded with loads of information. However, it was some of the chapters on other topics that I liked reading the most; chapters like the one on Chalukyan Queens or the Chalukya - Ganga Relationship or the one on Chalukya - Pallava Conflict were very interesting; only well-read scholars can write articles on topics like these. Besides, there are sections on Chalukyan architecture, the social life during their times, their administration, their inscriptions in Kannada and Telugu, the impact that this dynasty had on the subsequent history of the Deccan et all; you rarely find such a wealth of information, that too from so many different experts in a single book. Of course, there are some chapters where you will not be able to follow what the author is trying to say since you lack the necessary information in that field. Still, over all, this book does provide you a holistic picture regarding the Chalukyas of Badami.

Priced at Rs. 50/-, this is perhaps one of the cheapest books that I have ever read. However, the problem is that finding a copy online is almost impossible. In fact, I went to the Mythic Society  at Nrupthunga Road (Link) to get a copy over an year ago. Also, there seem to be very few copies remaining and the lady there told me that they do not have any plans to reprint this book anytime in the near future. Hence, in case you need one, please pick a copy before it runs out of stock.

Read the complete series on Badami Chalukyas here (Link)

THE BADAMI CHALUKYAS - Part VI

THE ACHIEVEMENTS

(1) The Vesara style of Temple Building: The heart of the Badami Chalukya empire - the Malaprabha basin dotted by the towns of Badami (Vatapi), Aihole, Pattadkal and Mahakuta are described by many as the 'cradle of Indian temple architecture'. The Chalukyas blended the elements of the Nagara style of the North that reached its pinnacle during the Gupta era and the southern Dravidan style of their nemesis - the Pallavas to give rise to the Vesara temple architecture.

The Badami rulers as well as their queens were prolific builders; using locally available sandstone, the architects patronized by them created some of the most magnificent temples in northern Deccan. Designated as UNESCO World Heritage sites, the temples of this region, namely the Virupaksha, the Mallikarjuna and the Kashi Vishwanatha shrines in Pattadkal, the Lad Khan and Durga temples in Aihole and numerous cave temples in Badami are some of the most well preserved specimens of Chalukyan architecture. In fact, they are counted amongst the most beautiful heritage structures in the country and annually attract thousands of visitors.

(2) The development of Kannada: With nearly 4 crore speakers, Kannada is amongst the forty most spoken languages in the world. Spoken primarily in the state of Karnataka in southern India, it has a history of nearly two millennia. Though the language got its independent script during the Kadamba era, it was in the reign of the Badami Chalukyas when it became popular. The large number of Kannada inscriptions attributed to the kings and emperors of this dynasty are a clear indication that Kannada was not only the official language of the Vatapi court but it was also widely understood by a large section of their subjects. Besides, their closest allies - the Western Gangas too were great patrons of the language.

Of course, the contribution of preceeding dynasties as well as those who succeeded the Badami Chalukyas viz the Kadambas, the Rashtrakutas, the Gangas, the Kalyani Chalukyas, the Hoysalas and the Vijaynagar Empire in the development of Kannada too is immense; some will argue that several of the most important literary works were written much after the glitter and pomp of the Vatapi court had passed into the history books. However, in many ways, they were continuing the tradition that began first at the Banvasi and which was taken to an all new level during the days of the Badami kings.

(3) Stabilizing Deccan: The first empire builders based out of medieval Deccan, the Badami Chalukyas, at their height were the masters of the entire peninsular region, stretching from southern Rajasthan to Kanyakumari. The greatest ruler of this dynasty, Pulakeshi II led a mighty army on campaign across southern India, banishing his rivals and forging diplomatic ties with others; not so surprisingly, he is widely considered to be one of the most able monarchs in the history of the country. Though none of his illustrious successors succeeding in building an empire as strong as his, they managed to hold on to their domain in spite of being at constant state of war with their neighbors. The rulers of this dynasty were efficient administrators; during their reign, the core of the empire was largely peaceful. In fact, for nearly two centuries, the Badami Chalukyas provided much needed stability to Deccan which helped in creating an atmosphere conducive for the growth of art, architecture and literature. Moreover, during this time, trade flourished and prosperity prevailed as mentioned in the memoirs of Hiuen Tsang.

(4) Keeping the invaders at bay: Perhaps, one of the glorious moment in the history of entire Southern India came when Chalukyan monarch Pulakeshi II repulsed the invasion of the Emperor Harshavardhan of Kannauj on the banks of the Narmada river. It is one of the few rare instances in antiquity when peninsula was able to defend itself from the attacks of the rulers of the Gangetic plain. What makes this victory remarkable is that Harsha was no ordinary king; he was the undisputed Overlord of Northern India and had a vast army consisting of hundreds of elephants. About a century later, his namesake - Avanijanashraya Pulakeshi who was a Chalukyan prince governing Lata, saw off an invasion mounted by the Arabs in the west during the reign of Vikramaditya II. And that is not all; the Badami rulers also checked the rising powers of the Pallavas of Kanchipuram in the south.

The period between 7^th century and 11^th century was the time when Southern India was much more powerful and stable than the rest of the country. While northern and western parts of the nation were split into several smaller kingdoms following the death of Harshavardhan, Deccan was ruled by two powerful and warring dynasties - the Chalukyas and the Pallavas. In course of time, the Rashtrakutas who are the political successors of the Badami clan even managed to capture Kannauj which was the richest city in contemporary Northern India.

(5) Establishing relationship with rulers outside the Sub-continent: So powerful were the Badami rulers that tales of their military strength and fame traveled much beyond the realm of the Indian Sub-continent. Pulakeshi II, the warrior king who beat Harshavardhan and died on the battlefield while fighting Pallava Narshimavarman I is believed to set up diplomatic relationship with the Persian court. Similarly, other kings who occupied the throne of Vatapi are said to have sent emissaries to China and weilded considerable influence in the politics of Sri Lanka too for a certain period. There are others who believe that Chalukyans had some form of contact with the Khmer kingdom in South East Asia. Though the evidence to confirm this claim is missing, there is no doubt that the Badami Chalukya rulers were one of the strongest players in South Asian politics during this period.

Read the complete series on Badami Chalukyas here (Link)

THE BADAMI CHALUKYAS - Part V

WHO IS THE 'SECOND' GREATEST CHALUKYAN EMPEROR?

Historians and scholars are unanimous in their opinion that Pulakeshi II, the fourth emperor in this illustrious line of rulers was not only the greatest monarch to have sat on the throne of Badami but also count him amongst the best rulers in the history of the country. The tragedies that unfolded in the last few years of his reign apart, he won a series of victories in his remarkable military career, the crowning glory of which was his outstanding win over Emperor Harshavardhan when he tried to invade the Deccan. Of course, this is just one aspect of his life; besides being a military genius, he was also an able administrator as confirmed by records of the Chinese pilgrim Xuangzang. However, the question that I would like to attempt to answer in this post is one that has intrigued me for long now - After Pulakeshi II, who is the 'second greatest' Chalukyan emperor? In my opinion, there are five major contenders and over the course of this post, I would like to evaluate each one of these and try to arrive at a 'satisfactory' conclusion.

The first of these is Mangalesa, the uncle and immediate predecessor of Immadi Pulakeshi. Many will be surprised by the fact that I have included him in this exercise; after all, he is not spoken about in 'high regards' even in the dynastic records that generally tend to overrate the achievements of even the 'weakest' of the kings. The reason for him being 'overlooked' in the Chalukyan inscriptions, of course is pretty clear. His refusal to hand over the reins of the government to his nephew when the latter came of age is largely seen as 'act of betrayal' and a display of 'extreme selfishness'. Though he is wrong if you consider the 'law of primogeniture' but I have chosen to ignore this since I believe that his contribution in strengthening the Badami Chalukya clan has largely been overlooked.

Although he inherited a pretty stable kingdom, Mangalesa's conquests along the western coast are extremely important as far as the history of this clan is concerned. Apart from checking the ambitions of chiefs in the region and forcing them to submit to the Vatapi court, it also gave the Chalukyas access to the ports like Goa which were important centres of trade, especially in Arabian horses. Moreover, he was, in my opinion, the first king of Badami to pursue a policy of territorial expansion. His victory over the Kalachuris helped in adding areas in modern day Maharashtra to the Chalukyan kingdom. However, the reason why he fails in the race to be the 'second' best is that in spite of being in power for over a decade he failed to defend his throne against his nephew. This clearly shows that there was a strong coterie in the royal court that opposed Mangalesa and he failed in keeping a watch over their activities.

Another Chalukyan monarch who makes a strong case for himself is Vinayaditya - the sixth ruler of this clan. If the dynastic records are to be believed, he led a strong army and prevailed over a powerful king in the North. Thus while Pulakeshi was successful in repulsing Harsha's invasion, his grandson is credited to have crossed the Narmada and defeated a strong king ruling in the area of the Gangetic plain. He is also hailed as yielding supremacy over the kings of faraway lands like Persia, Ceylon and Kamera which some historians identify as the Khmer kingdom in modern day Cambodia. The problem however is that, at present we have no credible source to corroborate these rather tall claims which sound more like figment of imagination of a royal poet intend to glorify his master's achievements. We still do not have any information about the North Indian ruler who was beaten by Vinayaditya nor is there any mention in the history of Persia and Cambodia that their rulers paid tribute to the Badami kings. Also, in case the dynastic records are right, then Vinayaditya might well be the greatest of all the Chalukyan rulers surpassing even the famous Immadi Pulakeshi.

Most of the Badami Chalukyan kings had imperialistic ambitions and waged wars to win more territories and wealth. A notable exception to this was the third contender - Vijayaditya. His 37 year long reign was the longest for any ruler of his family and was marked by general peace and prosperity. In fact, it was also in the last days of his career that the family won a huge victory over their arch rivals - the Pallavas of Kanchi. Though I place him higher over the likes of Mangalesa and Vinayaditya, I still believe that he was not the 'second' best ruler of this dynasty. The reason is simple; I believe that for a ruler to be in the 'great' club, a ruler needs to be a great general and an efficient administrator. While Vijayaditya gets full marks for administration, the fact remains that as of now, we are not aware of any of his major military exploits. The lone campaign against the Pallavas too was headed by the crown prince about whom we will discuss next.

Vikramaditya II, the last of the great Chalukyan kings did something that even Pulakeshi could not; he managed to comprehensively defeat the Pallavas, not once, not twice but on three different occasions. The first of these was as the crown prince during the reign of his father Vijayaditya, the second as the King and third was an expedition led by his son Kirtivarman II. The death of Pulakeshi II on the battle field at the hands of Narsimhavarman I, the subsequent Pallava sacking of Vatapi and the inscription that their king left behind there were a great cause of embarrassment for this family. It was Vikramaditya's triple victories that finally ended this humiliation. Moreover, unlike the Pallavas, the Chalukyas did not ransack their capital; in fact, the Chalukyan emperor left his own inscription in Kanchi wherein it is mentioned that he made several grants to the temples and the priests, clearly indicating that he was a considerate monarch too. Besides, it was during his reign that Avanjijanasraya Pulakeshi of the Lata branch stemmed the advances of an Arab army. Thus, as far as warfare is concerned, Vikramaditya II is perhaps next only to Immadi Pulakeshi as far as the Badami Chalukyas are concerned.

So, is he the 'second' greatest? Ahh, I don't think so. The Chalukyan Empire crumbled within a decade after the death of Vikramaditya II and the seeds of destruction were sowed during his time. Though he won a major victory over the Arabs in the north, I think that this ruler concentrated most of his energies in the south. So determined was he in destroying the Pallavas that he in a sense ignored the meteoric rise of two families in this part of the world - the Rashtrakutas under Dantidurga and the Pandyas who would eventually diminish the glory of the Badami court. Like Pulakeshi II, the constant wars that he waged would have taken a toll on the state exchequer. Lastly, an important mistake that he made was that so involved was he in the politics of southern Deccan that he completely ignored the northern frontier.

The final contender in this race is Pulakeshi's own son Vikramaditya I. As mentioned earlier, after the defeat and death of his father, the great Pallava emperor Narshimavarman I captured and sacked Vatapi. For a period of 13 years, the Chalukyan capital remained in the hands of their bitter rivals. It was a critical period in the history of this dynasty and our understanding of it as yet is quite limited. All we are sure about is that it was Vikramaditya II who succeeded in driving the Kanchi army out of Badami and restoring the Chalukyan pride to some extent. Thus in some ways, he rebuilt the Vatapi kingdom following its devastation at the hands of Narshimavarman I. In his 25 year long reign as the monarch, he is said to have defeated the Pandyas, the Chola sand the Cheras who had allied with the Kanchi king during the Chalukya-Pallava conflict. Also, we know from inscriptions that he continued to get tribute from the Latas, the Gujjaras and the Malavas. Hence, except for Vengi which was by now an independent kingdom, the extent of his empire was next only to his father. He also undertook a campaign against the Kanchi kings but we are not sure as to what was the ultimate result of this conflict as both sides claim victory.

Unlike his namesake, Vikramaditya I could never achieve a complete victory over the Pallavas. However, in my opinion, that cannot be a yardstick to measure greatness. If it was not for him, the Badami Chalukya dynasty would have passed into oblivion following the death of Pulakaeshi II. He literally rebuilt the kingdom from pieces, pushed out the Pallavas and reaffirmed his family's hold over regions up to Southern Gujarat. He was vigilant enough to check the ambitions of his feudatories and the empire survived for nearly a century after his death. Of course, we cannot deny that he was lucky enough to have strong successors like Vinayaditya, Vijayaditya and Vikramaditya II. But then, had it not been for the strong leadership provided by him during the time of crisis, the Chalukyan power would have ended with the death of Pulakeshi II.

Thus, I believe that Immadi Pulakeshi's son and successor Vikramaditya I who was the next best ruler to have occupied the Badami throne followed closely by his great grandson Vikramaditya II at number three.

Read the complete series on Badami Chalukyas here (Link)

THE BADAMI CHALUKYAS - Part IV

THE HARSHA - PULAKESHI WAR

Please Note: This is a fictional account of the war fought between Harsha Vardhan and Pulakeshi II on the banks of the river Narmada.

A day before the impending battle, emperor Harsha Vardhan was gripped by anxiety; crowned at the tender age of 16, he had fought many battles in his remarkable military career and had subjugated a plethora of clans in the Gangetic plain. After avenging the death of his brother, he built the most extensive empire in the Sub-Continent ever since the fall of the Guptas; one that extended from Punjab in the west to Bengal in the east. Yet, he knew that the upcoming battle would be the most difficult one that he had fought so far. After all, the skirmishes that had taken place between the two sides over the last fortnight had proved that beating the might Karnataka-bala army would be far from an easy task. It had been over a month since the ruler of Kannauj had left his capital with an entourage consisting of over 40,000 well-trained soldiers, 5,000 choicest cavalry and 300 war elephants on his southern campaign. In fact, the entire caravan including the supply wagons extended for nearly three kilometers from one end to another; it was an entire city on the move, leaving everyone who had witnessed this spectacle 'spell bound'. After crossing the mighty Narmada, Harsha set up his camp on its banks and fortified his position.

Historians and scholars are divided over the reason that prompted the northern Samrat to launch this offensive into the Deccan. Most believe that after conquering the plains, it was but natural for a strong king like him to venture into the south in a bid to fulfill his imperialistic ambitions. Though Harsha was a Buddhist, he was certainly not averse to war. One after the other, his vast army had beaten a host of rulers up to the Narmada frontier and it was but natural for him to expand his horizon and look to extend his territories into the peninsular region, thereby emulating the successes that emperors like Ashoka the Great and Kaniska had enjoyed before him. Others say that it was the submission of central Indian dynasties like the Latas, the Gujaras and the Malavas to the Badami court that irked Harsha. From his point of view, the Chalukyan king, by accepting to be the overlord of the above mentioned families based out of present day Gujarat and Rajasthan was infringing on 'his sphere of influence'. This, in his opinion had to be checked or else several of his own sub-ordinates could do the same.

Three miles down south, in the enemy camp, King Pulakeshi II was finalizing his strategy for the battle. The fourth king to occupy the Vatapi throne, he had proved to be an efficient ruler and a brilliant general in his career so far. After emerging victorious following the civil war, not only was he able to consolidate his position but after a spate of military conquests, he became the undisputed ruler of the upper half of the peninsula. His forces, fighting under the Varaha emblem had humbled other strong regional chiefs and forced them to accept his suzerainty. However, this was the defining moment of his life; while the odds were stacked against him, a victory against Harsha would bring fame and immortality, something that all monarchs crave for. On the other hand, a defeat would bring ignominy and humiliation in form of a hefty annual tribute that had to be paid to the king of Kannauj. In his tent that also served as the war room, he along with his brother Kubuja Vishnuvardhana, his Sandhivigrahika (Foreign Minister), some senior generals and war veterans discussed the plans for the next morning when the great armies of the north and south would meet on the Ranabhoomi. They were aware that Harsha would unleash his fleet of war elephants to break the Chalukyan ranks and devised a strategy to counter it. As the meeting concluded, Ravikirti - the royal poet who witnessed the meeting remarked, "Tomorrow, the magnitude of the victory of the forces of the Prithvi-Vallabha (Pulakeshi) would be such that King Harsha will lose all his harsha (Happiness) and flee from the battle field".

Meanwhile, emperor Harsha had hardly slept that night; he got up early in the morning, performed a host of religious rituals so as to please the Gods and then changed into his military gear. After mounting his favorite war elephant - the Ayraavat, he directed his men to march on. The formation of the Vardhan army was fairly complex; the front line consisted of auxiliary troops that comprised of criminals and prisoners of war flanked on either side by a platoon of cavalry. Behind them were the men belonging to various feudatory kings and chieftains who had accepted Harsha's overlordship. Then came in the famed pachyderm unit followed by a line of archers. Behind them was the core of the Vardhan army at the center of which stood the Emperor surrounded by the royal guards whose main job was to take the King to safety in case of an emergency; the men on foot fought primarily with swords and spears. Finally, there was a line of reserve troops that would be called up in case any unit had to be supplemented urgently.

In the Chalukyan camp too, Pulakeshi performed several Vedic rites to gain the favor of the Gods which included an animal sacrifice. At the auspicious time fixed after consulting the best astrologers from his kingdom, he led his army from the front with the aim of repulsing Harsha's invasion. He divided his front line into 20 units, each comprising of well trained infantry and cavalry mounted on fine Arabic horses. Some of these divisions were headed by rulers of states that had pledged their allegiance to the Vatapi court including the Gangas, the Alupas and the Banas. Behind them was a band of archers, a platoon of elephants, followed by numerous lines of infantry and cavalry amidst which stood the King, overlooking and directing the war operations. As the two armies took their positions opposite each other, Harsha seemed to be impressed with the preparations of his adversary. He quipped to one of his commander, "This is going to be a long day on the battle field for all of us". Pulakeshi though, was unfazed; he scanned the enemy line looking for loop holes that he could leverage to his advantage.

Once the two sides were ready, it was Pulakeshi, much to Harsha's surprise who gave the first order for the attack. As the conch was blown, five units charged with patriotic fervor, marched towards the enemy while shouting their battle cry. The auxiliaries in the Varshan army who went to meet them were no match to the troops from Deccan known for their courage and valor. Many of them were cut down and the balance began to tilt in favor of the southerners. Harsha though, was not the one to give up so easily; he ordered his cavalry to charge towards the enemy units who by now had occupied the center. The tactic worked and the horse men were able to hold against the advancing Chalukyan forces. For the next hour or so, the battle seemed to be evenly poised; the entire field was strewn with mutilated bodies and the atmosphere was echoing with sounds of swords clashing against each other; while their compatriots were dying around them, the brave sons of Bharata, irrespective of whether they were fighting for Harsha or Pulakeshi, put up a strong fight. As the sub-ordinate kings fighting under Harsha were called in next, the king of Vatapi countered it by ordering more of his units to move towards the line of action. At one point of time though, the right side of the Chalukyan army was on the verge of collapse and a worried Pulakeshi requested his brother Vishnuvardhana to reinforce it. Leading from the front, the prince succeeded not only in holding back the opponents but also killed several enemy soldiers. As if the heat of the battle was not enough, the afternoon sun made matters worst for both sides.

It was at this juncture that Harsha signaled three lines of his elephant units to charge towards the Chalukyan army. Intoxicated with alcohol, the pachyderms wreaked havoc on the battle field, trampling soldiers on either sides as they ran towards the enemy ranks. It was now that Pulakeshi displayed his military acumen; he directed his archers to 'welcome' these beasts with 'fire arrows' dipped in oil. As the fire started descending on to them from the heavens, the pachyderms panicked; some of them even turned back and in the process ended up clashing with the subsequent lines causing a stampede. Still in disbelief, the Vardhan emperor ordered the rest of his elephants to hold on. As if to press home his advantage, Pulakeshi sent more troops to the front. Men on horses fought bravely against the stronger battle elephants and though many of them perished, they brought down several beasts too. Next, the Chalukya king ordered his own set of elephants to come to the forefront. Now that ruler of Vatapi could not use the services of his archers, Harsha had no option but to bring his remaining pachyderms to counter this latest enemy attack. Wave after wave, soldiers fighting for Harsha kept on attacking the men loyal to Pulakeshi. However, the latter were largely successful in holding out. The deadlock continued for another two hours and as the sun began to set on the horizon though, both kings asked their men to return back to their respective camps.

Isn't it a fact that while kings and generals declare war, it is the soldiers who die. On that fateful day in the first half of the sixth century, nearly 15,000 men were slain and thousands more were injured. About 60 elephants were killed; a majority of them belonging to Harsha. In this battle of the fittest, only the 'bravest of the brave' survived.

As the physicians were treating the injured, Harsha called an emergency meeting with his generals to discuss the future course of action. While some of his men wanted to continue the war against Pulakeshi, others argued that the cost involved in this endeavor would be enormous; even if they did earn a hard fought victory, it would be akin to a Pyrrhic victory. Considering that the tribes in the north-west were only waiting for an opportunity to strike, the war if pursued further could severely hamper the empire's defenses against the enemies in the north. After two hours of intense deliberations, the decision was made and Harha's dreams of an empire covering Deccan was gone forever.

In the Chalukyan camp, the mood was upbeat; though the soldiers knew that they had won the day, Pulakeshi a brilliant general himself, refused to drop the guard. He visited the wounded and addressed the gathering of his men where he thanked them for their bravery in defending his kingdom and urging them to be ready for battle the next day. As he was discussing the battle plans with his trusted aides, he received the news that emissaries from Harsha had arrived suing for peace. However, the Chalukyan king kept them waiting for over an hour as he discussed whether to continue the hostilities or not. The Vatapi ruler knew very well that the war could potentially drain his resources, leaving his kingdom vulnerable, both to internal as well as external forces. As his council concluded its meeting, Pulakeshi welcomed the guests and treated them with respect and dignity. He agreed to send his representatives to hold talks with Harsha and declare an instant end to the fighting provided that the Vardhan army would immediately retire to the northern bank of the Narmada.

As Harsha compiled to Pulakeshi's demand, the Chalukyan army moved up north and settled on the opposite bank. The negotiations that began the next day continued for a week. As per the terms of the treaty, the Narmada river was chosen as the boundary between the two empires. Harsha proclaimed himself Uttaradipathi (Lord of the North) while Pulakeshi took the title of Dakshinapathi (Lord of the South). Both rulers agreed to a gradual time bound withdrawal of troops from the front, exchanged ambassadors and promised to settle all future differences via dialogue. As a part of the peace process, the two mighty kings had a brief rendezvous too that lasted for a few minutes where they exchanged pleasantries and spoke of ways in increasing the trade between the two states. Though both were rivals, they had immense respect for each other and it showed in the manner in which the talks were conducted. Besides, the two also exchanged gifts as it was a custom during those times.

Two days later, Harsha left for his capital and took the bulk of his remaining army along. Technically, he had not lost the war. However, the bottom line was that he had failed to break into the peninsula. Nonetheless, he was happy that he had lost to a worthy foe. A day later, Pulakeshi began his return journey to Badami where he was received with much pomp and fare. Defying all odds, he had seized his glory; hence forth, he like Harsha would be known as an 'Emperor' and would be counted amngst the greatest rulers in the history of India.

Read the complete series on Badami Chalukyas here (Link)

THE BADAMI CHALUKYAS - Part III

PULAKESHI II: THE RISE & FALL OF THE WARRIOR KING

The greatest king to be born in the family of the Badami Chalukyas, Pulakeshi II is widely regarded as one of the greatest monarchs in the glorious history of India. In his thirty-three year long reign, he carved out an empire that covered extensive parts of northern and central Deccan; at the zenith of his military prowess, the whole of the peninsula bowed to him. The accounts of foreign travelers who visited his domains tell us a resplendent tale of prosperity that was ushered in the south during this period. Never since the time of the powerful Satavahana ruler Gautamiputra Satkarni had any king from down south ruled such a vast territory. His resounding victory over his worthy contemporary Harsha Vardhana, the emperor of Kanauj is considered to be his most remarkable military feat. However, there is certainly more to him than this and in this post, I would like to present my views on the meteoric rise and equally sudden fall of southern India's earliest emperor.

It is a well-documented fact that Ereya as Pulakeshi was known in his youth, had to fight his uncle to get the throne that 'rightfully' belonged to him by the law of primogeniture. He raised the banner of revolt against the incumbent Chalukyan king Mangalesa after it became clear that the latter wanted to hand down the kingdom to his own son. Though we do not have the details, Ereya might have been about 15 to 20 years old when the Vatapi kingdom was engulfed in the civil war; he was young and inexperienced. Mangalesa, on the other hand was at the height of his career; having ruled over a decade, it is quite possible that he had filled the army and administration with his loyalists. Moreover, he had won decisive victories in the west and north that saw the Chalukyan domain double in size, proving that he was a worthy general. For Pulakeshi to build an army strong enough to challenge the incumbent king and then lead it to a victory over the forces of Mangalesa when he was just a fugitive prince is in my opinion, one of the biggest achievements of his career in spite of the fact that he got some aid from feudatories like the Gangas of Talakkad. This proves that he had mastered the art of military strategy and diplomacy at an early age.

Further proof to my above mentioned conclusions can be got from the steps he took to stabilize his new kingdom following his coronation and prior to a brilliant career of military conquests in the later years. As the combined armies of Appayika and Govinda crossed the Bhima River to engage the new king, he used shrewd diplomacy to break their unity; while he conferred royal titles on the latter, he defeat the forces of the former on the battle field. Further, he also forged a matrimonial alliance with the Gangas by marrying a princess from the Talakkad royal family.

Most Chalukyan monarchs took titles like 'Ranavikrama' (Victor on the battle field) and 'Sri Prithvivalabha' (Lord of the Earth). However, none of them justified these rather lofty epithets more than the emperor we are discussing here. After consolidating his position at home, Pulakeshi II turned his attention towards the Arabian coast where chiefs who were loyal to his predecessors may have discontinued paying allegiance to the Badami court. According to his court poet Ravikirti who gives a detailed picture of his patron's military achievements, he invaded Banavasi, perhaps to see of a challenge posed by the descendants of the Kadambas and then captured Puri, identified with modern day Elephanta caves near Mumbai from the Konkan Mauryas. It was his northern campaigns that brought him in contact with Emperor Harsha Vardhan who was the undisputed ruler of the Gangetic plain. He is believed to have extracted tribute from the Latas, the Malavas and the Gurjaras. The crowning glory of Pulakeshi's reign, as most of the historians seem to believe was his victory over the Kanauj army on the banks of the Narmada. This was one of those rare occasions in history when a southern ruler was able to successfully defend his domain from a strong northern adversary. Following this splendid victory, he took up the title of 'Dakshinapathesvara' (Lord of the South). As if to justify this, he undertook a series of expeditions to the east that saw his army capture Vengi and prevail over some kings of Kalinga. With his sway extending from the Arabian to the Bay of Bengal, the warrior-king turned his attention to the south and mounted a highly successful invasion of the Pallava kingdom in which he is believed to have routed the Kanchi ruler Mahendravarman I in a battle. Thus at its zenith, the empire of Pulakeshi II covered most of modern Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra and Telangana besides large territories of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra and Odisha. Thus it is very clear that as far as military prowess is concerned, he was second to none.

Though a lot has been said and written about Pulakeshi's conquests, the accounts of Chinese traveler Hsuan Tsang give us a beautiful picture of the conditions prevalent in the Chalukyan Empire during his time. Besides portraying a positive picture of the monarch and his army, the Buddhist scholar also heaps loads of praises on the people of the region and talks about the prosperity abundant here during the time. The point I am trying to make is that not only was this Badami king a great conqueror, he also seems to have been a superb administrator. The very fact that he exchanged ambassadors with the king of Persia shows that his fame as a strong ruler spread much beyond the realm of the Sub-continent.

Another point that I would like to make before we talk about the reasons for this powerful ruler's downfall is that he achieved all the above mentioned feats at a time when there were other equally strong monarchs ruling in other parts of the country. Though, I do not intend to demean the achievements of any king in history, the fact remains that it is comparatively easy to carve out an empire when the nation is split into small and weak kingdoms, each vying for supremacy. However, this was certainly not the case during this period. The first half of seventh century AD in Indian history was the 'Age of the Emperors'. The Gangetic plain was under the control of Emperor Harsha as discussed earlier, a sizable chunk of Deccan was held by the Chalukyas and in deep south, in AD 630, the most famous of the Pallava kings - Narasimhavarman I was crowned as the king of Kanchi. As such, we see that between AD 630 and AD 642, different parts of India were ruled by strong rulers, each of who excelled in the art of warfare and diplomacy. In spite of the fact that he faced tough competition from his worthy contemporaries, the extent of his empire and the prosperity enjoyed by his subjects truly justifies his claim as one of the greatest monarchs in the history of our land.

It is said that you are at your weakest when you are at the peak; perhaps, the lives of few people justify this as much that of Pulakeshi. After scaling great heights and over-running the whole of Deccan, he faced a series of setbacks at the end of his glorious career. After succeeding his father, the new Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman I led a counter invasion into the Chalukyan territories ably assisted by the Pandyas, the Cheras and the Cholas. After winning several battles, the mighty king of Kanchi captured Vatapi and Pulakeshi II is believed to have died a heroic death on the battle field defending his metropolis. The intriguing question is how did the empire that Pulakeshi built so painstakingly, collapse in a matter of months?

Perhaps, age did play its part in the unfolding of the events during the last years of his life. If Ereya was 18 years old when he ascended the throne, having ruled for thirty three years, he would have been over 50 at the time of his death. In those times, when average life expectancy was low, Pulakeshi was well beyond his prime. Moreover, the constant campaigns that he undertook during his reign would have definitely taken its toll on his body, draining him both physically and mentally; may be he was no more the master strategist that he once was; the vigor that saw him vanquish all his enemies was probably gone; even worse, after having beaten all his neighbors, he may have become complacent and neglected the challenge posed by the Pallavas who had recovered from their early defeats and by now raised a strong army.

Apart from this, the constant warfare on several fronts would have drained the treasury. The main sources of income for the Chalukyan kings like others in medieval India were revenue from land, trade and tributes paid by sub-ordinate chiefs. Although the land was fertile, famine and drought could have curtailed the empire's budget considerably. Pulakeshi II would have had a vast army; possibly thousands of soldiers and hundreds of elephants fought for him. Thus, he needed money to pay and train his men and to buy arms and ammunition. Also, we know that the Chalukyans were prolific builders; the monuments that they have left behind shows that he spent a huge portion of their treasury on constructing temples and making religious donations. Probably, during the last days of Pulakeshi's life, the state's finances had dried up and he could not get the necessary reinforcements to check the Pallava invasion.

Last but not the least; Pulakeshi's greatest mistake was that he failed to check the growing power of Pallava Narasimhavarman I. Having defeated the Kanchi ruler's father Mahendravarman I, he seems to have become complacent in his attitude towards his southern adversary. After becoming the king, Narasimhavarman slowly began raising an army to avenge the losses suffered by his father. Besides, he like Pulakeshi of his youth was a gifted general and an excellent strategist. He forged an alliance with other rulers of the Tamil country viz the Pandayas, the Cheras and Cholas and launched an offensive against the Chalukyas in early 640s. Though the preparation for this war would have taken several years, the mighty Vatapi ruler did nothing to counter the Pallavas either militarily or diplomatically. This proved suicidal; not only did Pulakeshi die on the battle-field, he lost his capital to the invading army till it was liberated by his son Vikramaditya I in AD 655.

Read the complete series on Badami Chalukyas here (Link)