INDIA IN THE PALAEOLITHIC AGE

WHEN IT ALL BEGAN

Contrary to popular conception, the story of human life in India began thousands of years prior to the emergence of the first cities in the plains of Indus and its tributaries. The earliest traces that man left in this region date back millions of years ago, a period referred to as the Pleistocene period or the Great Ice Age, by the geologists. Like an overwhelming majority of prehistoric human societies around the world, these men lived as hunters/gatherers. As man had not yet discovered the art of farming or animal rearing, they survived by gathering various edible items like roots, fruits, honey and so on that nature had to offer or by killing animals, birds and fish available in the surroundings in which they lived. Much of our understanding about these ancient societies comes from the tools that these people made and used for their existence, the faunal remains of the animals they hunted and ate and the rock paintings that they have left behind. Unfortunately, in India, unlike in Europe, Africa and several parts of Asia, very few human remains have been found in association with these primitive tools. Hence our knowledge about these men is severely curtailed.

THE PHASES OF THE PALAEOLITIC AGE

The Palaeolithic Age - the longest age in the history of human civilization begins with the emergence of the first human societies in the last Ice Age and continues up to the starting of the Mesolithic Age in BC 8000. Considering the long extent of this age, historians have divided this period into three phases, on the basis of the kind of the tools used, the techniques used in giving them shape that give an invaluable insight into the advancement of the people as well as the changes in the climate and the environment. These are as follows:-

(1) The Lower Palaeolithic period with tools like hand axes, cleavers, choppers, chopping and tools 

(2) The Middle Palaeolithic period that is based on flakes

(3) The Upper Palaeolithic period includes burins and scrapers

THE PALAEOLITIC TOOLS

No study of the men in the Palaeolithic Age is worthwhile without acquiring enough information about the tools made and used by them. The details regarding some of the tools used in this period and the possible purposes they may have served are given below:-

(1) Hand axe: With a narrow working end a broader working end, it may have been used for cutting and digging purposes.

(2) Cleaver: This bifacial tool may have been employed for clearing and splitting objects like trunks of trees.

(3) Chopper: It is a massive core tool used for chopping purposes.'

(4) Chopping tool: It is a tool that is similar to the chopper and may have served the same purpose. However, unlike the chopper that is manufactured by unifacial flanking, the chopping tool is made by alternate flanking, thereby making it more efficient than the former.

(5) Flake: This most important tool of the middle Palaeolithic phase is crude shaped and produced by applying force on the stone. There are many Flaking Techniques like Free Flaking Technique, Step Flaking Technique, Block on Block Technique, Bipolar Technique etc.

(6) Side Scraper: Side Scraper is made of a flake or blade with continuous retouch along a border. It might have been used for scraping barks of trees and animal skins.

(7) Burin: It is like flake or blade and the working border is produced by the meeting of two planes. It was used for artistic purposes like engraving on soft stones, bones or walls of rock shelters and cores.

THE PALAEOLITIC SITES

The tools fashioned by the Palaeolithic man have been unearthed at various sites across the length and breadth of the country, indicating that several communities existed simultaneously in different parts of the country. The distribution of the tools tells us not only about the areas in which the hunter/gatherers lived and moved but also about their environment.

The Sohan valley located in the Siwalik region of modern day Pakistan is one of the most famous Palaeolithic sites in the Sub-Continent. From sites like Baliwal and Chauntra, tools like choppers and hand axes have been discovered. At Adial, on the bend of the Sohan River, hundreds of edged pebbled tools were discovered. Though no human remains have been ever found, the bearers of this culture – named as the Sohan culture or the Sohan stone industry were Homo erectus. Besides, several fossilized remains of animals like gazelle, giraffe, rhinoceros, rodents and crocodiles have been unearthed from these sites.

Most of these ancient sites have been found in the vicinity of rivers as water was readily available and also many animals would visit these places to quench their thirst, thereby plenty of opportunities for early men to prey upon them. This explains why the banks of Beas, Banganga, Sirsa and Luni have yielded so many Palaeolithic tools. In Rajasthan, Middle Palaeolithic tools implements have been found in the plains of Wadgaon and Kadamali rivers. These include a variety of scrappers, borers and points. Artefacts of this period were also found in Bhandarpur, near Orsang valley in Gujarat. While the river Bhader in Saurashtra is well known for its Palaeolithic assemblages, the Kutch region has produced many choppers, cleavers and hand axes.

Places in Maharashtra, associated with this Age include Chikri near Nevasa, from where hand axes, choppers, cleavers, scrappers and borers have been reported. The other important sites are Chandoli, Koregaon and Shikarpur. In Eastern India, the Palaeolithic tools found from Singhbhum region mainly includes hand axes and choppers. The distribution of tools in the valleys of Damodar and Suvarnarekha is influenced by topographical features. Also, the Buharbalang valley in Mayurbhang, Orissa has many Early and Middle Palaeolithic tools like hand axes, points, flakes etc. From the Ghatprabha basin in Karnataka, Acheulian hand axes have been found in large numbers. Anagawadi and Bagalkot are two most important sites on the Ghatprabha where both Early and Middle Palaeolithic tools have been found. The rivers Palar, Penniyar and Kaveri in Tamil Nadu are rich in Palaeolithic tools.

However, the most famous Palaeolithic site in the country lies in the Heart of India – Madhya Pradesh. The Bhimbetaka Rock Shelters in the Vindhya ranges in Raisen district of MP, with its thick vegetation, perennial water supply, rich vegetation and natural shelters was an ideal place of the Palaeolithic man. Over the years, archaeologists have found nearly 700 rock sites in the region and a closer study has revealed a continuous sequence of Stone Age cultures, from Upper Palaeolithic to Medieval period. The caves have evolved over time into excellent rock-shelters, ideal sites for aboriginal settlements. Apart from the central place the aboriginal drawings have in human history, the caves themselves offer interesting material for a study of the Earth's history. 

The rock shelters and caves of Bhimbetka have a number of interesting paintings which depict the lives and times of the people who lived in the caves, including scenes of childbirth, communal dancing and drinking, and religious rites and burials, as well as the natural environment around them. Executed mainly in red and white with the occasional use of green and yellow with themes taken from the everyday events of aeons ago, the scenes usually depict hunting, dancing, music, horse and elephant riders, animal fighting, honey collection, decoration of bodies, disguises, masking and household scenes. Animals such as bison, tigers, lions, wild boar, elephants, antelope, dogs, lizards, crocodiles etc. have been abundantly depicted. The superimposition of paintings shows that the same canvas was used by different people at different times. It is a marvel that the paintings have not faded even after thousands of years.

SUBSISTENCE PATTERN

The rock paintings and carvings on the walls of cave shelters give an insight into the subsistence pattern as well as the religious and social life of the early man. The Period I of Bhimbetka belongs to the Upper Palaeolithic Age. They reflect that Palaeolithic people lived in small band (small groups) societies whose subsistence economy was based on exploitation of resources in the form of both animal and plant products. Hunting is reflected as the main subsistence pursuit in the carvings and paintings. These paintings, done primarily in red and dark green colours are predominantly of bison, elephants, tigers, rhinos and boars. It is sometimes possible to distinguish between men and women on the basis of anatomical features.

There is a rich assemblage of animals both of indigenous and foreign origin. Primates, many giraffe-like forms, musk deer, goats, buffaloes, bovids and pigs seem to be of indigenous origin. The camel and the horse had North-American connection. Hippopotamus and elephants migrated to India from Central Africa. The abundant faunal remains seem to indicate that the Palaeolithic man was in hunter/gatherer stage. The people would have made extensive use of faunal and floral resources in their immediate vicinity. Hunting practices were concentrated on large and middle sized mammals especially ungulates. There is no evidence of selective hunting in this period. In some assemblages few species dominate; it is so because of their abundance in the area or because they were easy to hunt.
It seems that the subsistence pattern of hunter-gatherers was geared to a dry season/wet season cycle of exploitation of plant and animal foods. It is likely that the Palaeolithic people subsisted on such animals as ox, bison, antelope, wild boar, a variety of birds, and tortoises and fishes and on honey and plant foods like fruits roots, seeds and leaves.

SOURCES

(1) Wikipedia - Palaeolithic Age (Link)

(2) IGNOU Notes on Indian History (Chapter 3)

Champions of Freedom: Simon Bolivar

Apart from being one of the most bio-diverse continents on Earth, South America, with its vast stretches of untapped natural resources and hard working people is nicely poised to play a crucial role on the world stage. Although agrarian communities have flourished here since 2000 BC, the region came into limelight in the end of the 15th century when the conquistadors, backed by Iberian courts arrived on its shores. For the next three centuries, the natives, their cultures, religions and customs as well as the resources of the continent were exploited in a bid to fulfil the expansionist policies of their colonial masters, namely Spain and Portugal. However, by early 19th century, young South Americans, the descendants of European settlers, inspired by the success of revolutions in America and Haiti and disgruntled with the policies of their overlords began several armed campaigns aimed to achieve freedom for their people. Perhaps, the most illustrious amongst these ‘Independence Heroes’ or ‘Liberators’ as they are fondly called in this part of the world is Simon Bolivar.

Simon Bolivar, the champion of South American freedom struggle was born on 24th July, 1783 to Don Marie and Juan Vincente Bolivar in the erstwhile Spanish captaincy of Caracas. The circumstances prevalent in the Bolivar household forced them to entrust young Simon to the love and care of Dona Ines Manceba de Miyares and family’s slave, Ja negra Hipolita. Although he would return to his parents a couple of years later, this traumatic experience would have a severe impact on his life. In fact, his ordeal had just begun. He lost his father at the age of three and his mother died six years later.

Simon was fortunate enough to receive private lessons from renowned professors, the most influential being Dom Simon Rodriguez, who later became his friend and mentor. Besides teaching politics, history and sociology, he also taught Simon crucial skills like horse riding, rock climbing, swimming and more importantly, instilled in him the ideas of freedom, liberty and enlightenment. In the meantime his nanny, Hipolita gave the young Bolivar all the affection he needed and indulged him in all his wishes and desires. Simon developed a fervent passion for armaments and wartime strategy at the military academy of Millicias de Veraguas and the lessons he picked up here would come in handy during the wars of independence that he would fight in the later years. After having witnessed the spectacular coronation of Napoleon Bonaparte in Notre Dame, Bolivar resolved to emulate this triumphant glory for the people of his native land.

After his return to his homeland, Venezuela, in 1807, Bolivar began his military conquests against the Spaniards. It was during this period that he penned down his famous book, Cartagena Manifesto – an analysis of the causes that led to the collapse of the First Republic of Venezuela. In 1813, he joined the army of New Granada, a short lived federal republic established in 1811, only to be retaken by the Spanish army in 1816. From New Granada, Bolivar began his famous ‘Admirable Campaign’ in which the Independentists led by him captured the Spanish provinces of Merida, Barinas, Trujillo and Caracas in conjunction with Santiago Marino’s simultaneous success in the East. It was ad mists this campaign that Bolivar issued his controversial ‘Decree of War to the Death’ which permitted atrocities against people born in Spain except those who actively supported South American independence. This was an attempt to maintain Venezuelan independence and in retaliation to a similar strategy adopted by the Spanish against the natives.

Inspite of his efforts, the Second Republic fell, primarily due to the rebellion of Jose Tomas Boves and Bolivar returned to New Granada and entered the military services of United Provinces. He led an army that captured Bogota from the Republicans in 1814. He intended to march into Cartagena but after a series of political and military differences with the Government of Cartagena, he fled to Jamaica in 1815, where he was denied support and an attempt was made on his life. Next, he went to the newly independent nation of Haiti, where he was granted protection and sanctuary. He befriended Haitian leader, Alexandre Petion who offered Bolivar material and infantry support against the Spanish in return of a promise that he would abolish slavery once he came to power and Simon obliged.

Simon embarked upon his struggle for independence with a renewed vigour. The campaign for the independence of New Granada was sealed at the battle of Boyacá (1819) where the Independentists decisively defeated the Royalists. The Venezuelan independence was consolidated after Bolivar’s men crushed the Spaniards at Carabobo (1821). The victory of his confidant, Antonio Jose de Sucre in the Battle of Pichincha (1822) led to the solid foundation of the independence of Ecuador.

On 7th September, Gran Columbia, a state covering much of modern day Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador and Panama, was created with Simon Bolivar as its President. In July 1822, he met another famous Liberator of South America, Jose de San Martin of Argentina who besides his country had also partially liberated Peru. In February 1824, Bolivar was made the dictator of Peruvian Congress and he routed the Spanish cavalry at the Battle of Junín. The remaining Spanish troops in Peru were expelled by general Sucre at Ayacucho. On 6th August, 1825, at the Congress of Upper Peru, a new country was created and was christened as the Republic of Bolivia, in the honour of Simon Bolivar.

Bolivar’s dream had been to engender an American Revolution style federation between all the newly independent republics, with a government set up to recognize and uphold the rights of the individual. This dream, however succumbed to the pressures of particular interest across the region, which rejected such a model. For this reason and to prevent a breakup, Bolivar wanted to implement a more centralist model of government in Gran Columbia, including some elements of the Bolivian constitution like lifetime presidency with the ability to select a successor. This move was vehemently opposed by many delegates at the Convention of Ocana. After the failure of the Ocana Congress to write a new constitution, Bolivar proclaimed himself as the military dictator on 27th August, 1828. He considered this as a temporary measure, as a means to re-establish his authority and save the republic. On the contrary, this increased the dissatisfaction among his detractors. He survived an assassination attempt in September, 1828 with the help of his lover, Manuela Saenz, according to popular belief. Dissent continued and uprisings occurred in New Granada, Venezuela and Ecuador in the next two years.

Finally, Bolivar resigned from presidency on 27th April, 1830 intending to leave the country for an exile in Europe. On 17th December, 1830 he died after a painful battle with tuberculosis. His remains, which were earlier buried in the Cathedral of Santa Marta, were later moved to Caracas where a monument was set up for their interment in the National Pantheon of Venezuela.

Bolivar described himself as a ‘liberal’ who believed in a ‘free market’ and was an admirer of both the American and French revolutions. He was staunchly anti-slavery, a military genius and a man far ahead of his times. His repeated success against the mighty Spanish army during the 1820s reduced the once powerful Spanish empire to a miniscule kingdom in Western Europe. However the path to freedom was far from a cakewalk as the Spaniards managed to regain lost territories on several occasions. However, Bolivar didn’t lose hope and finally won freedom for his people.

Bolivar is often compared to another great American freedom hero, George Washington. Both were descendents of European settlers, owned large estates, had to face many initial setbacks during the Wars of independence and ended up serving as the Presidents of the nations that they had founded. However, inspite of the long list of similarities in their carriers, these two of the greatest leaders of modern times primarily differ on two major issues. While Simon Bolivar abolished slavery on coming to power, owing to his anti-slavery ideals and as a fulfillment of promise made to the Haitian leader Petion, bonded labour was wiped off from the United States during the Presidency of Abraham Lincoln in the mid-nineteenth century. Besides, Washington is known to have kept slaves throughout his life, including during his stay in the White House. Secondly, George Washington was able to hold the various American colonies as a single federal republic, probably an important factor in the emergence of the US as a global superpower. However, Simon’s goal of establishing such a state in the Southern part of the American landmass went to the grave with him.

Simon Bolivar is regarded in Latin America as a hero, visionary, revolutionary and liberator (El Liberator). During his relatively short life, he led five modern nations – Venezuela, Bolivia, Columbia, Ecuador and Peru to independence and laid the foundation of South American ideology on democracy. Because the image of Bolivar became central to the national identities in these countries, his mantle is claimed by nearly all political parties from all parts of the political spectrum. Infact Bolivar is the only person in the history of mankind to have two countries Bolivia and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela) to have been named after him.