THE SILAHARAS - Part II

THE SOUTH KONKAN SILAHARAS

Ganapati - Silahara Period (8th cent.)
Pilar Museum - Goa Velha

The first amongst the three Silahara kingdoms of the middle ages, the South Konkan Silaharas or the Goa Silaharas ruled areas of modern day Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra between the eighth and the eleventh centuries, chiefly as the feudatories of the mighty Rashtrakutas who were the preeminent political dynasty in much of the Sub-continent during this time. Like most 'minor' dynasties that rose and fell during this age, our knowledge about these kings, their administration, the prevalent socio-economic conditions and so on is meager to say the least; as a matter of fact, most information regarding the political history of this dynasty comes from the few copper plates that have been found so far, the most famous being that of one Rattaraja - probably, the last king of this dynasty which were found in the village of Kharepattan in the Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. These plates are no less than the famous 'Rosetta Stone' since they give a detailed genealogy of the whole clan beginning from the man who established this kingdom and his subsequent successors up to Rattaraja including their exploits. Of course, relying completely on this to rewrite the political history of this clan could be a costly mistake. However, in absence of other credible sources, validating the information present in these plates to reconstruct the South Konkan Silahara history is not possible.

Gokapattanam or Govapuri (Goa Velha) along the Zuari River is said to have been their capital with some historians stating that it was later moved to some prominent place in the Sawantwadi - Ratnagiri region. This assumption seems to be correct since the Kharepattan plates mention of the presence of a separate ruling family at Chandor which is not very far from Goa Velha. Though this family, of which we do not have any specific information was generally sub-ordinate to the Goa Silaharas, there have been instances recorded of hostilities between the two. As such, it would have been a strategic blunder for the capital to be so close to Chandor. Hence the observation of the South Konkan Silahara capital being in somewhere in modern day Ratnagiri region seems to make a lot of sense although the historical records to back this claim by be lacking at present.

THE ORIGINS

Like all other Silahara kingdom, the kings of the South Konkan branch claim to be descendants of King Jamutivahana - the mythical Vidyadhara king who is the prime protagonist of the Sanskrit epic Nagananda which is attributed to the great Vardhana Emperor Harsha. In this drama, the wise king who gives up his empire and retires to the forests, offers himself as a sacrifice to save the serpent race from the wrath of the Garuda. As the mythical bird realizes its mistake, Jamutivahan is revived from the dead and Garuda promises to end his annihilation of the snakes, bringing 'ananda' (joy) to the Nagas (serpents).

While the records of the branches at Thana and Kolhapur say that they were natives of the town of Ter, the Goan Silaharas records mention relations with the Kings of Simhala. People familiar with history would naturally and rightly identify Simhala with Ceylon or modern day Sri Lanka. However, Altekar suggests that Simhala here meant 'Tiswadi' - the island along the Goan coast on which the city of Panjim is situated. In fact, this conclusion seems to be correct since Goa was an integral part of the South Konkan Silahara kingdom. More interestingly, if the above conclusion is correct, Silaharas may actually be the first native Goan kings.

SANAPHULLA - THE FOUNDER

Ganesh - Silahara period (10 cent.)
The Goa State Museum, Patto - Panjim

As per the Kharepattan plates, the kingdom was founded by Sanaphulla who was granted the land between the Sahaya mountains (possibly the Sahayadris or the Western Ghats) and the Arabian Sea by the Rashtrakuta Emperor Krishna I in the mid-eight century. In fact, the Southern Silahara kings continued to owe their allegiance to their overlords at Manyakheta till the end of that clan. The claims in the plates suggests that Sanaphulla aided his 'master' Krishna I who was the second ruler in the Rashtrakuta clan, in subjugating the Konkan coast which was under the influence of the Badami Chalukyas till the downfall of the dynasty in AD 753. As the emperor left after conquering the coast, he perhaps appointed Sanaphulla as his 'Viceroy' or 'Governor', thereby establishing the dynasty.

Another scenario that is possible is that following the fall of the Chalukyan empire due  to the defeats inflicted upon them by the Pandyas and the Rashtrakutas, Sanaphulla who may be hailed from Goa, gathered a fighting force and drove away the Chalukyan defenders or their allies who guarding the rich port city of Govapuri. After expanding his influence in nearby areas along the coast, he might have submitted to the authority of the Rashtrakutas who were fast emerging as the undisputed masters of the Deccan. Though Goa was a prosperous region back then and a lots of money flowed in due to the international sea trade, the nascent kingdom stood no chance in front of the strong Rashtrakutan army. Moreover, there would definitely have been other contenders who were eager to bring the port city under their control. Probably, this is why he voluntarily accepted Rashtakuta overlordship and obtained their permission to rule the southern Konkan region by promising to pay an annual tribute and assist them as and when needed.

THE CHRONOLOGY

Sr. No.	King	Reign
1	Sanaphulla	765-795
2	Dhammayira	795-820
3	Aiyapparaja	820-845
4	Avasara I	845-870
5	Adityavarman	870-895
6	Avasara II	895-920
7	Indraraja	920-945
8	Bhima	945-970
9	Avasara III	970-995
10	Rattaraja	995-1020

a. This is the chronology of the South Konkan Silahara dynasty as given in the Kharepattan plates of Rattaraja.

b. In the absence of accurate details regarding the regnal years of the above mentioned kings, historians generally attribute a reign of 25 years to each of them which is the average reign for Indian kings ruling in the medieval times.

THE KINGDOM STABILIZES

Sanaphulla's successor was Dhammayira who is said to have consolidated his family's hold over the nascent kingdom by erecting a fort at Vallipattana or Ballipatana. Though there is no conclusion, historians have identified this port with places like Velim in South Goa, Kharepattan in Ratnagiri district and so on. It seems to have been a bustling port during this time and and well connected to other nearby ports of Chandrapur (Chandor, Goa) and Chemul (Chaul, Maharashtra). Moreover, the Kharepattan plates also mention ships from far and wide docking in its yard and the taxes that they paid to the Southern Silahara treasury. Some believe that in course of time, Vallipattana could even have served as a second capital of their kingdom apart from the first seat of power at Goa Velha.

Aiyaparaja, the third king in this line is said to have won a victory over the local ruler of Chandrapur. This was perhaps a major boost to the Silahara kingdom. Firstly, this victory would have helped in maintaining their supremacy in the neighborhood. Moreover, Chandor was a prosperous port having trading contacts with other coastal towns along the Western coastline and bringing it under the influence of the Silaharas would have earned them certain financial benefits too.

Silaharas - Silver Coins (11th - 12th Cent.)
The Goa State Museum, Patto - Panjim

ADITYAVARMAN - THE GREATEST SOUTH KONKAN SILAHARA KING

Though the Kharepattan plates may refer to Avasara I as the 'Vanquisher of the Enemies', it was his son - Adityavarman who in my opinion was the greatest ruler of this clan. The contemporary North Konkan Silahara ruler - Lagu Kapardin II was still a minor and Adityavarman used this opportunity to increase his supremacy over most of the Konkan region. As per the plates, he is said to have offered assistance to the rulers of Chandrapur and Chemul. If we consider these two places as the northern and the southern limits of the South Silahara 'sphere of influence', then it means that Adityavarman was the master of nearly 500 kilometer of Konkan coast, leaving only the Mumbai-Thana region for the Northern Silaharas. Thus the kingdom reached its zenith under him.

GATHERING OF THE CLOUDS ON THE HORIZON

Adityavarman was succeeded by Avasara II, Indraraja and Bhima who is recorded as being 'ambitious'. It was during his reign that the Goa Kadamba dynasty rose and captured Chandor. Since the Kadambas were loyal to the Kalyana Chalukyas who were the sworn enemies of the Rashtrakutas - the overlords of the South Konkan Silaharas, the two clans are believed to have been hostile towards each other. Bhima is said to have won a victory over the first Kadambas king Shashthadeva or his son Chaturbhuja. However, this win was in no way decisive since it was the Goa Kadamba dynasty that would play a key role in bringing an end to the South Konkan Silahara kingdom.

As if the Kadamba takeover of Chandor was not enough, the Silaharas were delivered a crushing blow when the Rashtrakuta dynasty was overthrown by the Kalyana Chalukyas during the reign of Avasara III. Though most of the vassals of the Rashtrakutas had switched their allegiance to Tailapa II by now, the Goan Silaharas continued to be loyal to them. In fact, the Kharepattan grant of Avasara's successor - Rattaraja contains the genealogy of the Malked clan, a right reserved only for the imperial overlords. By the time this grant was given, it was over two decades since the last of the Rashtrakuta kings were deposed yet the Goa Silaharas seem to have had some sense of gratitude and affection towards them which is strange. Thus while the North Konkan Silaharas accepted the suzerainty of the new rulers of Deccan, namely the Chalukyas, their counterparts down south were still held up in the past and this proved to be a costly mistake. The demise of the Rashtrakutas and the emergence of the Goa Kadambas who had allied themselves with the Kalyana Chalukyas proved disastrous for the Silaharas of southern Konkan. A grant of this ruler named as the Chikkodi or the Pattanakuddi plate dated AD 988 is the earliest of the three land grants belonging to this clan which have been found so far.

THE END

Two grants of Avasara's son and successor - Rattaraja have been found so far. The first dated AD 1008 are the Kharepattan plates which record the grant of three villages namely Kushmandi, Asavanire and Vadagule to Atreya the Brahmin belonging to the Karkaroni branch of Mattamayura clan of Saiva sect for the worship of God Aveshvara. Another grant issued two years later records the grant of a plot in the village of Bhaktagrama and a garden of betel nut to Sankamaiya, son of the Brahmin Senavi Bagamaiya. This was one of the earliest mention of the Shenvi Brahmanas who went on to dominate the Goan society in the later periods.

The series of events that culminated in the demise of this dynasty are unclear; neither are we sure as to who the last Goan Silahara king was - Rattaraja or his immediate successor. Anyway, what we can tell for sure is that the refusal of these kings to acknowledge the supremacy of the Chalukyas would have not gone well with the latter. Moreover, the Kadambas too were sensing on an opportunity to settle scores with them. Whatever be the reason for it, it is pretty clear that Chalukya emperor Jayasimha II invaded the South Silahara kingdom and deposed its ruler while returning from a campaign against the Cholas, probably after Rattaraja renounced his allegiance to the Kalyana clan following the death of its ruler Satyasraya or Vikramaditya V. It is also possible that the invasion weakened the Goa Silaharas and soon after the Chalukyan army withdrew, the city of Govapuri was attacked and captured by the Kadambas who are considered to be the political successors to the Goa Silaharas.

THE RASHTRAKUTA - SOUTH SILAHARA RELATIONS

Naga - Silahara Period (10th cent.)
The Goa State Museum, Patto - Panjim

The relationship between the kingdom and their imperial overlords in Manyakheta is 'enigmatic' to say the least. The Southern Silaharas were fiercely loyal to the Rashtrakutas; at a time when the power equations in the Deccan were fast changing in the later half of the tenth century and the Kalyana Chalukyas were the devouring vast swathes of the erstwhile Rashtrakuta empire, the kingdom continued to swear its allegiance to the Manyakheta court. In fact, even after the termination of this glorious line of rulers by Taila II, the grants of the Goan Silahara kings continued to begin with the genealogy of the now 'dead' clan. A copper plate of Rattaraja mentions with regret as to how the Rashtrakuta family was crushed by the weight of the mountain that fell on it in the form of Taila. It seems that the Silaharas later accepted the suzerainty of the Chalukyas but were doomed once they raised the banner of revolt leading to the invasion of the Goa region by Jayasimha II.

Though there are no questions regarding the loyalty of the Silaharas towards the Rashtrakutas, the relation between the two families is not as per the general convention of these times. For example, a vassal state was suppose to send in troops whenever its overlord undertook an expedition or was defending his sovereignty. We know for sure that the Rashtrakutan army fought many wars and their records do mention the sub-ordinate kings who helped them in their battles; however, the Southern Silaharas find no mention in all these records which is strange. After all, a dynasty that mourns the demise of its imperial masters in its personal records is expected to stand by them during their hour of need, isn't it? Moreover, we have no record of any sort of matrimonial alliance between the two families which too was a norm in most cases. Hopefully, our understanding of the nature of the relations between these two dynasties will enhance after more records of the Southern Silaharas are discovered in the future.

THE LEGACY

An important point that historians tend to miss while writing about this kingdom is the role that it would have played in the rich and prosperous Indo-Arab trade. We know that the Arabs were in contact with the Rashtrakutas as the Arab text Silsilatuttavarikh names them as one of the four greatest empires in the contemporary world. With the ships from the Gulf dominating the Arabian Sea region during this time, most of the trade or diplomatic relations between the two worlds i.e. India and Arabia would have happened through the seas. As the port cities in Konkan, Goa and Karavali (coastal Karnataka) were under the rule of states sub-ordinate to the Rashtrakutas, most of this trade would have happened here. Thus, both the Silahara kingdoms would have served as the 'Gateway to India' for the Arabs.

Medieval ports like Chandrapur (Chandor), Gokapattna (Goa Velha), Vallipattnam, Kharepattan, Chemul (Chaul), Puri (Elephanta) and Kalyan which were under the influence of the two Silahara clans were definitely the melting pot where these two worlds, each rich not only in terms of money but in science and culture as well, would converge benefiting both. From the perspective of the Silaharas, the trade would have been a rich source of revenue. The Kharepattan plates mention the Arabic ships docking at the port of Vallipattnam and the taxes that they paid to the authorities there.

THE BADAMI CHALUKYAS - Part I

THE THREE KINGDOMS OF THE SOUTH

In the early 6^th century AD, political instability had gripped the northern parts of the Deccan peninsula. A sting of weak rulers and internal feuds had completely weakened the Kadamba dynasty which had ruled this region for nearly two centuries. The era of the Banavasi kings was in its twilight; the situation presented a golden opportunity to both, subordinate chieftains and external forces to increase their influence. Taking advantage of the chaos, a new family rose to power in this part of the country, filling in the vaccum caused by recent developments. Ruling from their capital of Badami (or Vatapi) near Bagalkot in their first stint, they went on to carve an empire that covered large portions of southern and central India between the sixth and the eight century; in fact, at their zenith, their territorial extent was more than twice as big as their predecessors. They maintained large and efficient armies that helped them repulse invasions from the north and win decisive victories over their rivals in the south. Their contribution in the field of literature, especially that in the local language - Kannada is immense. And finally, their elegant architecture is considered amongst the finest in our history; some elements of their style were later improvised by the Vijaynagar rulers too. The Badami Chalukyas are one of the most distinguished and illustrious dynasties of our country.

Though the exact origins of this clan, like most of our early dynasties is shrouded in mystery, it is fairly clear that they were feudatories to the Kadambas prior to their ascent. The details of the political developments that took place in the seventeen year period between the death of the last Kadamba king Harivarma in 525 AD and the establishment of the Chalukya power in 542 AD are unknown. Pulakeshi I who broke off all allegiance to the Banavasi court, laid the real foundation of the kingdom. The fourth Chalukya king, rather emperor Pulakesi II is undoubtedly, the greatest to occupy the throne and was the real architect of the empire. A military genius, his stunning victory over the mighty Vardhana emperor Harsha on the banks of the Narmada (a rare instance of a southern king successfully repulsing an attack from the north) is regarded as his greatest feat. Tragically, the last few years of his reign saw the Pallavas lead a successful campaign against him and Pulakeshi is believed to have died on the battlefield. In the eight decade long period following his demise, the Pallavas always had the upper hand in the war between the two dynasties. Things started changing when Vikramaditya II ascended the throne. He avenged earlier humiliation caused by defeat at the hands of his enemy by capturing Kanchipuram on three different occasions. A benevolent emperor, he refused to sack the magnificent temples in Tamil country and is said to have made several grants to the priests and the poor. He subjugated kingdoms in the deep south and also checked the Arab invasion. His son and successor Kirtivarman II was the last significant ruler of this line. Winds of change were sweeping Deccan. The Pandyas and the Rashtrakutas captured large parts of their kingdom, besides isolating them diplomatically. As Dantidurga and his successors expanded their possessions, leading their armies up to Kannauj - the richest city in contemporary India, the Chalukyas were forced to accept the overlordship of the Rashtrakutas, waiting for the appropriate time to stage a comeback.

A second branch of the Chalukyas ruled over the Seemandhra region since 624 AD from their capital of Vengi, near modern Eluru. The origins of this dynasty, also known as the Eastern Chalukyas lies in the conquest of coastal Andhra Pradesh by the emperor Pulakeshi II in the early seventh century. Knowing that the new territories were too far to be efficiently administrated from his capital, he appointed his younger brother Kubuja Vishnuvardhana as the viceroy of eastern Deccan. However, with the death of his elder brother, a war of succession broke amongst his sons even as the Pallavas captured Vatapi for thirteen years. It was at this time that Vishnuvardhana declared his independence and held sway over the territories between Srikakulam and Nellore along the Coromandel coast covering the fertile Krishna and Godavari deltas. The exact nature of relationship between him and his successors on one hand and their relatives ruling from Badami on the other, is not very clear. As the Rashtrakutas become powerful, the vengi kings accepted their suzerainty. King Vijayaditya III was known to be a close ally of the emperor Amogavarsha II. After the death of his friend, the Vengi king is believed to have raided and captured parts of the Rasthrakuta empire. Several wars were fought between these two families between 870 to 930 AD. As the Deccan plunged into chaos in the late eleventh century, the Eastern branch enlarged its territories. A serious threat to their existence came in the year 1006 AD when the Western Chalukyan king Satyasraya invaded Andhra with the aim of uniting the two kingdoms. However, timely intervention by the Chola army saved the eastern half. In the later years, both the Kalyana Chalukyas and the Cholas who were locked in a power struggle in the south, tried to increase their influence in the Vengi court by trying to place their own favourites on the throne. This dynasty - the longest serving of all the Chalukyan clans lost much of its prestige by 1070s and finally came to an end about a century later in 1189 AD. Though they are not as popular as their other relatives, they played a key role in the development of the Telugu language and brought about peace in the region in the period which is known as the 'Golden Age in Andhra history'.

The resurgence of the Chalukyas in their native Karnataka began when the powerful yet liberal Rashtrakuta emperor Krishna III made Tailapa II the chief of Tardavadi province near Bijapur in 965 AD for his services. The kings who occupied the throne after him were weak and the invasions from the north lead to further deterioration. Tailapa killed Karka - the last Rashtrakuta king and seized their capital of Manyakheta, establishing the Western Chalukaya kingdom. We are not sure about their relationship with the earlier Badami line of kings. But what we know for sure is that they fought constantly with a ruling family from the Tamil country - the Cholas. His son Satyasraya tried to capture the fertile Vengi region but failed. Someshvara I moved the imperial capital to Kalyani and hence, this dynasty is also referred to as the Kalyani Chalukyas. In the 1070s, an internal feud broke out between his two sons - Somesvara II and Vikramaditya V which escalated into a civil war involving vassals and neighbouring kingdoms. Finally, it was Vikramaditya who emerged as the winner and went on to become the greatest ruler of this line of kings. He inflicted two heavy defeats on the Cholas and cut down the feudatories to size in a reign that lasted nearly five decades. However, in the later half of the twelfth century, the Chalukyan kingdom faced the heat from emerging powers - the Kakatiyas, the Hoysalas and the Seunas. Somesvara IV, the last king fought hard to revive their fortunes but was sent into exile. Thus ended the rule of the Chalukyas in the Deccan in the 1200 AD.

Some scholars believe that the Solankis of Annhilwara - a dynasty that ruled Gujarat between the tenth and the thirteenth century were related to the Chalukyas of the Deccan in some way. The word 'Solanki' is said to be derived from 'Selukya' which in turn is a corrupted form of 'Chalukya'. However, it is not correct to base our assumptions merely on words and their origin. On the other hand, there is some probability that the above assumption may be true. We are sure that southern Gujarat was under the occupation of two Chalukyan dynasties - the Badami family and the Kalyani family for considerable period of time. Like it happened in Vengi, it is highly likely that a Badami Chalukya viceroy of Lata, as Gujarat was known then, may have been the fore father of the founders of the Annhilwara kingdom. We know that during the reign of Badami emperor Vikramaditya II, his viceroy in Gujarat - Avanijanashraya Pulakeshi who was somewhat closely related to the reigning king, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Arabs of Sindh which was much appreciated in the Badami court. It may be possible that the Solankis were descendents of this Puleshi or some other Chalukya viceroy of Gujarat. As such, a link cannot be entirely ruled out. However, unlike the Vengi Chalukyas or the Kalyana Chalukyas who claim to have descended from the Badami line of rulers in their inscriptions, no such mention is made by the Annhilwara kings. Hence, until some strong evidence emerges in this regard, it is better to assume that the Solankis had no links whatsoever, with Chalukyas of the Deccan.

Read the complete series on Badami Chalukyas here (Link)