EMIR ABD AL-QADIR

The PANTHEON

CHAMPIONS OF FREEDOM

Abd al-Qadir was born near the town of Mascara near Oran on 6^th September, 1808 in a Banu Ifran Berber family, thereby claiming to be the descendent of Muhammad. His father, Muhyi al-Din-al Hasani was a Shaykh in Qadiri Sufi order of Islam. Besides being trained in horsemanship, theology and linguistics, he memorized the Quran at an early age.

In 1825, he set out for Hajj with his father. While in Mecca he encountered Imam Shammil, the third Imam of the Caucasian Caliphate and the leader of the anti-Russian resistance in the Caucasian War and the two spoke at length on various topics. He also traveled to Baghdad and Damascus where he visited the graves of noted Muslims and was impressed by the reforms carried out by Muhammad Ali in Egypt. The experiences on this tour were to have a life long impact on young Qadir’s mind.

In 1830, soon after his return, Algeria was invaded by France and the French supplanted what had been the domination in name only by the Ottoman Empire. Qadir’s father launched attacks against the French and their allies. Soon the tribal elders choose 25 year old Qadir as the leader of the Jihad against the Europeans.

Qadir was appointed as Emir al-Muminun (Commander of the Faithful) and was quick to gain the support of the West Algerian tribes. A devout and austere marabout, he was also a cunning politician and a resourceful warrior. He is remembered as a strong and an authoritarian leader, but was nevertheless pragmatic and used European officials in fields were his own subjects lacked experience. He was particularly noted for his chivalry: on one occasion he set free French captives simply because he didn’t have enough food to feed them.

From his capital at Tlemcen, Abd al-Qadir set about building a territorial Muslim State based on communities of the interior but drawing its strength from tribal and religious brotherhood. He se up juridical equality between the tribes, established a bureaucratic system and equal taxes for all his subjects. He assembled an army that counted 200 troops but which was strengthened by locals in times of war. His government undertook public works and set up agricultural and manufacturing co-operatives to boost the economy. He fought running battles with French forces including the French Legion, organized in 1831 for Algerian services.

Abd al-Qadir signed several tactical truces with the French, but these did not last long. By the Desmiches Treaty of 1834, he got control over the region around Oran while he recognized French supremacy in the Northern areas. His expansion was checked by the defeat at the hands of French general, Thomas Bugeaud (1836) but he ended up negotiating a favorable deal with the colonists in the following year. At the Treaty of Tafna, he recognized France’s sovereignty in Oran and Algiers and was allowed to rule over remaining two-thirds of the country, mainly in the interiors. Besides, this treaty also helped him salvage his reputation among the tribes just as the Shaykhs were about to desert him.

When French troops marched through a mountain pass in his dominion, he cited this as a violation of the peace pact and renewed hostilities with the French on 15^th October, 1839. He destroyed the European settlements on the Mitidja Plain and on one occasion marched up to the outskirts of Algiers. The French retaliated by suppressing the natives and practiced a scorched-earth policy. Abd al-Qadir’s failure to get support of the Eastern tribes, Kabyles, Berber mountain tribes etc contributed to his downfall. One by one, the Emir’s strongholds were captured and his trusted generals were either killed or captured. He lost Oran (1841), Tlemcen (1842) and by 1843, his Muslim state had completely collapsed.

He took refuge with his ally, Abd ar Rahman – the Sultan of Morocco. He moved back to Algeria and set up a state in the South. Facing new challenges, he returned to Morocco where he was denied protection and financial support from the Sultan owing to French diplomatic and military pressure. He was obliged to surrender to the commander of the Oran province, General Louis de Lamoriciere on 21^st December, 1847 in exchange for the promise that he would be allowed to go Alexandria or Acre. However, the French government refused to honor their generals’ word and Abd al-Qadir was exiled to France.

Qadir and his family were first detained at Toulon, then at Pau and finally transferred to the Chateau de Amboise in November, 1848. In October, 1855 he was released by Napoleon III and given an annual pension of 1, 00,000 Francs on taking an oath never to disturb Algeria again. He took up residence at Basra and then moved to Damascus. He devoted himself anew to theology and philosophy, composed a philosophical treatise and also wrote a book on Arabian horses.

In July, 1860 conflict between the Druze Muslims and Masonite Christians of Mount Lebanon spread to Damascus and the local Druze population attacked the Christian Quarter and slaughtered 3,000 people. However, Qadir and his personal guard saved a large number of Christians, bringing them to the safety of his house. For this action, the French government bestowed on him the Grande Cross of the Legion d’Honneur and increased his pension to 4,000 Louis. He was also honored by the American President, Abraham Lincoln with several guns which are now in display in the Algiers museum. In 1865 he visited France on an invitation from Napoleon III where he was greeted with both official and popular respect. Declining all invitations to return to a public life, he devoted himself to scholarly pursuits and charity until his death on 26^th may, 1883 in Damascus.

Although there is still some controversy regarding his devotion to his people after his arrest, Abd al-Qadir is recognized and venerated as the first hero of Algerian independence. His green and white standard was adopted by the Algerian liberation and become the national flag of independent Algeria. He was buried in Damascus in the same mausoleum as Ibn Arabi, until the Algerian government brought back his remains to the country to be interred with the ceremony on 5^th July, 1966 – the fourth anniversary of Independence and 136^th anniversary of the French conquest. The Emir Abd al-Qadir university and a mosque bearing his name were constructed as a national shrine in Constantine, Algeria.

When a new community was being planned on what was then the American frontier in 1846, founders Timothy Davis, John Thompson and Chester Sage – none of them Arabs or Muslims were so impressed with what they had heard about an Algerian leader’s valiant struggle for freedom that they decided to name their town after him. In fact this town – Elkader in the State of Iowa has retained its Algerian influence by establishing a sister city connection with Mascara – the birthplace of the man after whom their town is named. The town of Elkader is an indication of the international fame and popularity of Emir Abd al-Qadir.  

GEORGE WASHINGTON

The PANTHEON

CHAMPIONS OF FREEDOM

The American Revolution is, in many ways an epoch making event in the history of mankind as it laid down the foundations of democratic politics and the incorporation of the rights of the people in the State constitution. It was a crucible from which the widespread assertions of liberty, individual rights and hostility towards corruption – the core values of republicanism emerged and spread across the world. The American Revolution is the first example of a successful revolt against a European empire followed by the establishment of a republican form of government and since then has became an inspiration for people of different regions fighting against oppressive regimes.

George Washington, the pioneer of the event and the man who led the armies of the thirteen colonies against the British was born on 22nd February, 1732 in Westmoreland County, Virginia. Educated by his father, Augustine and eldest brother, Lawrence, George worked as a Surveyor General and acquired invaluable knowledge of the terrain around Virginia. Lawrence’s marriage into the powerful Fairfax family earned George the patronage of Thomas Fairfax, who was instrumental in his appointment as the Surveyor of the newly created Culpeper County at the young age of 17 years. Through Lawrence he also became interested in the Ohio Company which aimed to exploit the Western lands. After Lawrence’s death, George was appointed a district Adjutant General in the Virginia Militia and at the age of 21, he became a Master Mason in the Freemasons, which was a lifelong influence.

In 1754, he was commissioned a Lieutenant Colonel and ordered to lead an expedition to Fort Duquesne. However, a French Canadian and Indian force overwhelmed his troops, resulting in what was the only occasion in his military career where he was taken captive by the enemy. Although he was cleared of blame for the defeat after his release, he resigned from the Virginia Militia. In the following year, he distinguished himself as the hero of the Monongahela – an ill fated effort to retake Ohio Country. Three years later, he participated as a Brigadier General in the Forbes expedition that prompted the French evacuation of Fort Duquesne. However, he resigned from active military and spent next 16 years of his life as a Virginia planter and politician.

On 6th January, 1759, he married the wealthy widow Martha Curtis, and the newly wed couple moved to Mt. Vernon near Alexandria. Owing to his marriage to Martha, a land grant for his success in the French and Indian Wars and the frequent land purchases he made in his name, he had doubled the size of Mt. Vernon to 26 sq km and increased the slave population to more than 100 persons by 1775. As a respected military leader and large land owner, he was elected to Virginia provincial legislature, beginning in 1758. While George led a luxurious life, he managed to pay off his debt by diversification. In fact, by 1766, he had switched the primary cash crop of Mt. Vernon from tobacco to wheat, a crop that could be sold in America and diversified operations to include floor milling, fishing, horse breeding, spinning and weaving.

George began taking a leading role in the growing colonial resistance after the protest of the Townshend Acts (1767) had become widespread. He introduced a proposal that was drafted by his friend George Mason, which called for Virginia to boycott English goods until the acts were repelled. Although the goal was achieved in 1770, George regarded the passage of the Intolerable Acts (1774) as an “Invasion of American Rights and Privileges”. In July, 1774 he chaired the meeting at which the ‘Fairfax Resolves’, which called for the convening of a Continental Congress was adopted. In August, later that year, he was selected as a delegate from Virginia to the first Continental Congress.

After fighting broke out in April, 1775, Washington appeared at the Second Congress in military uniform signalling that he was ready for the war. Thanks to his military experience, the charisma and military bearing, the reputation of being a strong patriot and backing from the Southern colonies, George Washington was appointed as the Major General and elected by the Congress to the Commander-in-Chief of the newly formed Continental Army.

Washington assumed the leadership of the Continental Army in the field at Cambridge, Massachusetts in July, 1775 during the siege of Boston. After acquiring barely adequate supplies, mostly from France, he reorganized the army and forced the British to withdraw by putting the artillery on the Dorchester Heights. The Continental Army engaged the enemy for the first time as the army of the newly declared independent United States at the Battle of Long Island – the largest battle in the entire War. His army’s night time retreat across the East River without the loss of a single life is believed to be his greatest military feat. A sting of British victories sent him scrambling out of New York and across New Jersey.

On the night of 25th December, 1776, he staged a counter attack, leading the Americans across the Delaware River in Trenton, New Jersey and then at Princeton in early January. As a measure to boost the dwindling numbers of the Continental Army, he increased the rewards for staying and punishment for desertion. On September 11, 1777, the British General, Howe defeated Washington’s troops at the Battle of Brandywine and then marched into Philadelphia. George’s unsuccessful attack on the British garrison at Germantown prompted some Congressmen to discuss removing him from his post. However, they failed as his supporters rallied behind him.

After six months of stay at Valley Forge, the Continental Army emerged in good order, thanks in part to a full scale training programme by Baron Von Steuben, a veteran of the Prussian General Staff. The British evacuated Philadelphia to New Jersey in 1778 but Washington attacked them and drove them from the battlefield. At his directions, General Jon Sullivan carried a scorch earth campaign against the Iroquois in retaliation for their attacks on the American settlements, early in the war. The final blow was delivered in 1781 after a French naval victory allowed the Americans and French troops to trap a British army in Virginia. The surrender at Yorktown on October 17, 1781 marked the end of most fighting. By the Treaty of Paris, Britain formally recognized the independence of United States.

On 23rd December, 1783, he resigned as Commander-in-Chief, emulating the Roman general, Cincinnatus. He was an exemplar of the republic ideal of citizen leadership who rejected power and retired to Mt. Vernon. However, he was convinced to attend the Continental Convention in Philadelphia in 1787 and was unanimously elected as its President. The delegates designed the Presidency with Washington in mind and allowed him to define the office, once elected. His support led to the ratification of the new Constitution by all 13 colonies.

Washington took oath of office as the First President of the United States at Federal Hall in New York on 30th April, 1789. He was an able administrator, an excellent delegator and judge of talent and character. Although he reluctantly served a second term as President, he refused to run for a third term, establishing the customary policy of a maximum of two terms for a US President. During his tenure, he personally oversaw the establishment of the permanent seat of government called Washington, in his honour. He also led the military in the battlefield after the Whiskey rebellion. On the foreign front, he rejected Citizen Genet’s attempt to turn popular sentiment towards the American involvement in the French war against the British and demanded his recall. Also, despite strong opposition from the Jeffersonians, Washington normalized the trade relations with Britain by signing the Jay treaty.

After retiring from the Presidency in March 1797, Washington returned to Mt. Vernon with a profound sense of relief and devoted much of his time to farming. On July 4, 1798, he was commissioned by President John Adams to be the Commander-in-Chief of armies raised for service in the prospective war with France. He also participated in planning for a Provincial Army to meet any emergence that may arise. However, he died on 14th December, 1799 qt his home aged 67. On 18th December, 1799 a funeral was held at Mt. Vernon and Washington was interred in a tomb on the estate. Several attempts made by the Congress to move his mortal remains to a marble monument in the US capital were thwarted by opposition from the Southern states. Finally he was laid to rest on October 7, 1837 in a new tomb constructed by John Struthers of Philadelphia. After the ceremony, the inner vault’s door was closed and the key was thrown into the Potomac River.

According to a popular story, following the end of the war in 1783, King George III asked what Washington would do next and was told about the rumours that he would return to his farm; this prompted the British monarch to state, “If he does that, he would be the greatest man in the world.” In fact, he did return to his plantation and won millions of admirers around the world. Representative Henry Lee, a revolutionary War Comrade famously eulogized Washington as “First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen.” Lee’s words set the standard by which his overwhelming reputation was impressed upon the American memory.

 

SOURCES: WWW.WIKIPEDIA.ORG

SIMON BOLIVAR

The PANTHEON

CHAMPIONS OF FREEDOM

Apart from being one of the most bio-diverse continents on Earth, South America, with its vast stretches of untapped natural resources and hard working people is nicely poised to play a crucial role on the world stage. Although agrarian communities have flourished here since 2000 BC, the region came into limelight in the end of the 15th century when the conquistadors, backed by Iberian courts arrived on its shores. For the next three centuries, the natives, their cultures, religions and customs as well as the resources of the continent were exploited in a bid to fulfill the expansionist policies of their colonial masters, namely Spain and Portugal. However, by early 19th century, young South Americans, the descendants of European settlers, inspired by the success of revolutions in America and Haiti and disgruntled with the policies of their overlords began several armed campaigns aimed to achieve freedom for their people. Perhaps, the most illustrious amongst these ‘Independence Heroes’ or ‘Liberators’ as they are fondly called in this part of the world is Simon Bolivar.

Simon Bolivar, the champion of South American freedom struggle was born on 24th July, 1783 to Don Marie and Juan Vincente Bolivar in the erstwhile Spanish captaincy of Caracas. The circumstances prevalent in the Bolivar household forced them to entrust young Simon to the love and care of Dona Ines Manceba de Miyares and family’s slave, Ja negra Hipolita. Although he would return to his parents a couple of years later, this traumatic experience would have a severe impact on his life. In fact, his ordeal had just begun. He lost his father at the age of three and his mother died six years later.

Simon was fortunate enough to receive private lessons from renowned professors, the most influential being Dom Simon Rodriguez, who later became his friend and mentor. Besides teaching politics, history and sociology, he also taught Simon crucial skills like horse riding, rock climbing, swimming and more importantly, instilled in him the ideas of freedom, liberty and enlightenment. In the meantime his nanny, Hipolita gave the young Bolivar all the affection he needed and indulged him in all his wishes and desires. Simon developed a fervent passion for armaments and wartime strategy at the military academy of Millicias de Veraguas and the lessons he picked up here would come in handy during the wars of independence that he would fight in the later years. After having witnessed the spectacular coronation of Napoleon Bonaparte in Notre Dame, Bolivar resolved to emulate this triumphant glory for the people of his native land.

After his return to his homeland, Venezuela, in 1807, Bolivar began his military conquests against the Spaniards. It was during this period that he penned down his famous book, Cartagena Manifesto – an analysis of the causes that led to the collapse of the First Republic of Venezuela. In 1813, he joined the army of New Granada, a short lived federal republic established in 1811, only to be retaken by the Spanish army in 1816. From New Granada, Bolivar began his famous ‘Admirable Campaign’ in which the Independentists led by him captured the Spanish provinces of Merida, Barinas, Trujillo and Caracas in conjunction with Santiago Marino’s simultaneous success in the East. It was ad mists this campaign that Bolivar issued his controversial ‘Decree of War to the Death’ which permitted atrocities against people born in Spain except those who actively supported South American independence. This was an attempt to maintain Venezuelan independence and in retaliation to a similar strategy adopted by the Spanish against the natives.

Inspite of his efforts, the Second Republic fell, primarily due to the rebellion of Jose Tomas Boves and Bolivar returned to New Granada and entered the military services of United Provinces. He led an army that captured Bogota from the Republicans in 1814. He intended to march into Cartagena but after a series of political and military differences with the Government of Cartagena, he fled to Jamaica in 1815, where he was denied support and an attempt was made on his life. Next, he went to the newly independent nation of Haiti, where he was granted protection and sanctuary. He befriended Haitian leader, Alexandre Petion who offered Bolivar material and infantry support against the Spanish in return of a promise that he would abolish slavery once he came to power and Simon obliged.

Simon embarked upon his struggle for independence with a renewed vigour. The campaign for the independence of New Granada was sealed at the battle of Boyacá (1819) where the Independentists decisively defeated the Royalists. The Venezuelan independence was consolidated after Bolivar’s men crushed the Spaniards at Carabobo (1821). The victory of his confidant, Antonio Jose de Sucre in the Battle of Pichincha (1822) led to the solid foundation of the independence of Ecuador.

On 7th September, Gran Columbia, a state covering much of modern day Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador and Panama, was created with Simon Bolivar as its President. In July 1822, he met another famous Liberator of South America, Jose de San Martin of Argentina who besides his country had also partially liberated Peru. In February 1824, Bolivar was made the dictator of Peruvian Congress and he routed the Spanish cavalry at the Battle of Junín. The remaining Spanish troops in Peru were expelled by general Sucre at Ayacucho. On 6th August, 1825, at the Congress of Upper Peru, a new country was created and was christened as the Republic of Bolivia, in the honour of Simon Bolivar.

Bolivar’s dream had been to engender an American Revolution style federation between all the newly independent republics, with a government set up to recognize and uphold the rights of the individual. This dream, however succumbed to the pressures of particular interest across the region, which rejected such a model. For this reason and to prevent a breakup, Bolivar wanted to implement a more centralist model of government in Gran Columbia, including some elements of the Bolivian constitution like lifetime presidency with the ability to select a successor. This move was vehemently opposed by many delegates at the Convention of Ocana. After the failure of the Ocana Congress to write a new constitution, Bolivar proclaimed himself as the military dictator on 27th August, 1828. He considered this as a temporary measure, as a means to re-establish his authority and save the republic. On the contrary, this increased the dissatisfaction among his detractors. He survived an assassination attempt in September, 1828 with the help of his lover, Manuela Saenz, according to popular belief. Dissent continued and uprisings occurred in New Granada, Venezuela and Ecuador in the next two years.

Finally, Bolivar resigned from presidency on 27th April, 1830 intending to leave the country for an exile in Europe. On 17th December, 1830 he died after a painful battle with tuberculosis. His remains, which were earlier buried in the Cathedral of Santa Marta, were later moved to Caracas where a monument was set up for their interment in the National Pantheon of Venezuela.

Bolivar described himself as a ‘liberal’ who believed in a ‘free market’ and was an admirer of both the American and French revolutions. He was staunchly anti-slavery, a military genius and a man far ahead of his times. His repeated success against the mighty Spanish army during the 1820s reduced the once powerful Spanish empire to a miniscule kingdom in Western Europe. However the path to freedom was far from a cakewalk as the Spaniards managed to regain lost territories on several occasions. However, Bolivar didn’t lose hope and finally won freedom for his people.

Bolivar is often compared to another great American freedom hero, George Washington. Both were descendents of European settlers, owned large estates, had to face many initial setbacks during the Wars of independence and ended up serving as the Presidents of the nations that they had founded. However, inspite of the long list of similarities in their carriers, these two of the greatest leaders of modern times primarily differ on two major issues. While Simon Bolivar abolished slavery on coming to power, owing to his anti-slavery ideals and as a fulfillment of promise made to the Haitian leader Petion, bonded labour was wiped off from the United States during the Presidency of Abraham Lincoln in the mid-nineteenth century. Besides, Washington is known to have kept slaves throughout his life, including during his stay in the White House. Secondly, George Washington was able to hold the various American colonies as a single federal republic, probably an important factor in the emergence of the US as a global superpower. However, Simon’s goal of establishing such a state in the Southern part of the American landmass went to the grave with him.

Simon Bolivar is regarded in Latin America as a hero, visionary, revolutionary and liberator (El Liberator). During his relatively short life, he led five modern nations – Venezuela, Bolivia, Columbia, Ecuador and Peru to independence and laid the foundation of South American ideology on democracy. Because the image of Bolivar became central to the national identities in these countries, his mantle is claimed by nearly all political parties from all parts of the political spectrum. Infact Bolivar is the only person in the history of mankind to have two countries – Bolivia and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela) to have been named after him.

SOURCES : www.wikipedia.org