GEORGE WASHINGTON

The PANTHEON

CHAMPIONS OF FREEDOM

The American Revolution is, in many ways an epoch making event in the history of mankind as it laid down the foundations of democratic politics and the incorporation of the rights of the people in the State constitution. It was a crucible from which the widespread assertions of liberty, individual rights and hostility towards corruption – the core values of republicanism emerged and spread across the world. The American Revolution is the first example of a successful revolt against a European empire followed by the establishment of a republican form of government and since then has became an inspiration for people of different regions fighting against oppressive regimes.

George Washington, the pioneer of the event and the man who led the armies of the thirteen colonies against the British was born on 22nd February, 1732 in Westmoreland County, Virginia. Educated by his father, Augustine and eldest brother, Lawrence, George worked as a Surveyor General and acquired invaluable knowledge of the terrain around Virginia. Lawrence’s marriage into the powerful Fairfax family earned George the patronage of Thomas Fairfax, who was instrumental in his appointment as the Surveyor of the newly created Culpeper County at the young age of 17 years. Through Lawrence he also became interested in the Ohio Company which aimed to exploit the Western lands. After Lawrence’s death, George was appointed a district Adjutant General in the Virginia Militia and at the age of 21, he became a Master Mason in the Freemasons, which was a lifelong influence.

In 1754, he was commissioned a Lieutenant Colonel and ordered to lead an expedition to Fort Duquesne. However, a French Canadian and Indian force overwhelmed his troops, resulting in what was the only occasion in his military career where he was taken captive by the enemy. Although he was cleared of blame for the defeat after his release, he resigned from the Virginia Militia. In the following year, he distinguished himself as the hero of the Monongahela – an ill fated effort to retake Ohio Country. Three years later, he participated as a Brigadier General in the Forbes expedition that prompted the French evacuation of Fort Duquesne. However, he resigned from active military and spent next 16 years of his life as a Virginia planter and politician.

On 6th January, 1759, he married the wealthy widow Martha Curtis, and the newly wed couple moved to Mt. Vernon near Alexandria. Owing to his marriage to Martha, a land grant for his success in the French and Indian Wars and the frequent land purchases he made in his name, he had doubled the size of Mt. Vernon to 26 sq km and increased the slave population to more than 100 persons by 1775. As a respected military leader and large land owner, he was elected to Virginia provincial legislature, beginning in 1758. While George led a luxurious life, he managed to pay off his debt by diversification. In fact, by 1766, he had switched the primary cash crop of Mt. Vernon from tobacco to wheat, a crop that could be sold in America and diversified operations to include floor milling, fishing, horse breeding, spinning and weaving.

George began taking a leading role in the growing colonial resistance after the protest of the Townshend Acts (1767) had become widespread. He introduced a proposal that was drafted by his friend George Mason, which called for Virginia to boycott English goods until the acts were repelled. Although the goal was achieved in 1770, George regarded the passage of the Intolerable Acts (1774) as an “Invasion of American Rights and Privileges”. In July, 1774 he chaired the meeting at which the ‘Fairfax Resolves’, which called for the convening of a Continental Congress was adopted. In August, later that year, he was selected as a delegate from Virginia to the first Continental Congress.

After fighting broke out in April, 1775, Washington appeared at the Second Congress in military uniform signalling that he was ready for the war. Thanks to his military experience, the charisma and military bearing, the reputation of being a strong patriot and backing from the Southern colonies, George Washington was appointed as the Major General and elected by the Congress to the Commander-in-Chief of the newly formed Continental Army.

Washington assumed the leadership of the Continental Army in the field at Cambridge, Massachusetts in July, 1775 during the siege of Boston. After acquiring barely adequate supplies, mostly from France, he reorganized the army and forced the British to withdraw by putting the artillery on the Dorchester Heights. The Continental Army engaged the enemy for the first time as the army of the newly declared independent United States at the Battle of Long Island – the largest battle in the entire War. His army’s night time retreat across the East River without the loss of a single life is believed to be his greatest military feat. A sting of British victories sent him scrambling out of New York and across New Jersey.

On the night of 25th December, 1776, he staged a counter attack, leading the Americans across the Delaware River in Trenton, New Jersey and then at Princeton in early January. As a measure to boost the dwindling numbers of the Continental Army, he increased the rewards for staying and punishment for desertion. On September 11, 1777, the British General, Howe defeated Washington’s troops at the Battle of Brandywine and then marched into Philadelphia. George’s unsuccessful attack on the British garrison at Germantown prompted some Congressmen to discuss removing him from his post. However, they failed as his supporters rallied behind him.

After six months of stay at Valley Forge, the Continental Army emerged in good order, thanks in part to a full scale training programme by Baron Von Steuben, a veteran of the Prussian General Staff. The British evacuated Philadelphia to New Jersey in 1778 but Washington attacked them and drove them from the battlefield. At his directions, General Jon Sullivan carried a scorch earth campaign against the Iroquois in retaliation for their attacks on the American settlements, early in the war. The final blow was delivered in 1781 after a French naval victory allowed the Americans and French troops to trap a British army in Virginia. The surrender at Yorktown on October 17, 1781 marked the end of most fighting. By the Treaty of Paris, Britain formally recognized the independence of United States.

On 23rd December, 1783, he resigned as Commander-in-Chief, emulating the Roman general, Cincinnatus. He was an exemplar of the republic ideal of citizen leadership who rejected power and retired to Mt. Vernon. However, he was convinced to attend the Continental Convention in Philadelphia in 1787 and was unanimously elected as its President. The delegates designed the Presidency with Washington in mind and allowed him to define the office, once elected. His support led to the ratification of the new Constitution by all 13 colonies.

Washington took oath of office as the First President of the United States at Federal Hall in New York on 30th April, 1789. He was an able administrator, an excellent delegator and judge of talent and character. Although he reluctantly served a second term as President, he refused to run for a third term, establishing the customary policy of a maximum of two terms for a US President. During his tenure, he personally oversaw the establishment of the permanent seat of government called Washington, in his honour. He also led the military in the battlefield after the Whiskey rebellion. On the foreign front, he rejected Citizen Genet’s attempt to turn popular sentiment towards the American involvement in the French war against the British and demanded his recall. Also, despite strong opposition from the Jeffersonians, Washington normalized the trade relations with Britain by signing the Jay treaty.

After retiring from the Presidency in March 1797, Washington returned to Mt. Vernon with a profound sense of relief and devoted much of his time to farming. On July 4, 1798, he was commissioned by President John Adams to be the Commander-in-Chief of armies raised for service in the prospective war with France. He also participated in planning for a Provincial Army to meet any emergence that may arise. However, he died on 14th December, 1799 qt his home aged 67. On 18th December, 1799 a funeral was held at Mt. Vernon and Washington was interred in a tomb on the estate. Several attempts made by the Congress to move his mortal remains to a marble monument in the US capital were thwarted by opposition from the Southern states. Finally he was laid to rest on October 7, 1837 in a new tomb constructed by John Struthers of Philadelphia. After the ceremony, the inner vault’s door was closed and the key was thrown into the Potomac River.

According to a popular story, following the end of the war in 1783, King George III asked what Washington would do next and was told about the rumours that he would return to his farm; this prompted the British monarch to state, “If he does that, he would be the greatest man in the world.” In fact, he did return to his plantation and won millions of admirers around the world. Representative Henry Lee, a revolutionary War Comrade famously eulogized Washington as “First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen.” Lee’s words set the standard by which his overwhelming reputation was impressed upon the American memory.

 

SOURCES: WWW.WIKIPEDIA.ORG

CHAMBAL MEIN MANGAL

Ever since the 13th century, the maze of deep ravines and scrub forests of the Chambal region of Central India have been home to generations of daring and dreaded outlaws, known locally as ‘Dakus’. Popularized in folk for performing essential social services in hard times and adjudicating local issues, and romanticized in Bollywood movies like Bandit Queen, Sholay, Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hain, Ganga Yamuna etc, the dacoits, nevertheless, unleashed a reign of terror in the nearby areas, committing countless cases of mass murders, kidnappings, rape, extortion and armed robberies, mostly targeted at people of higher castes whom they looked upon as the prime beneficiaries of an unjust, corrupt and biased system. From Daku Man Singh - the revered ‘Chambal ka Sher’ - the once poor Rajput whose fight against discrimination has got him a cult-like status among the locals to the Bandit Queen - Phoolan Devi, the dacoit turned politician who was directly responsible for the infamous Behmai massacre, these outlaws have sharply divided the opinion of the Indian masses, with some condemning them for their unlawful and violent activities while others hailing them as heroes for their Robin Hood-like characteristics. With the death of most wanted dacoit, Nirbhay Gujjar at the hands of policemen of the Special Task Force in November, 2005 and surrender by many others, dacoity in the Chambal valley has drastically declined to such an extent that it has been wiped out of most of the region.

With normalcy being restored, the Madhya Pradesh government has decided to cash in the situation. Come October, the State government in collaboration with Uttar Pradesh and a private player, Chambal Safari, is starting a special adventure tourism programme in Bhind district, aptly called ‘The Chambal Challenge’ from Oct 11th - 17th, mainly targeted at the foreigners who will visit the nation for the Commonwealth Games in New Delhi, allowing them to traverse the terrain infested with crocodiles and chat one on one with former bandits. Earlier the Rajasthan government had announced special packages for the Games tourists including a visit to the ghost town of Bhangarh near Jaipur.

The bloodline of the Chambal Ghatti (Valley) is the Chambal River, which originates at Manpura in the Vindhya Ranges and forms the boundary between the states of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, before turning southeast to join the Yamuna at the confluence of five rivers in Uttar Pradesh. Legend has it that large scale Yagyas (ritual of sacrifice to please the Gods) used to be organized on the banks of this river, where animals were slaughtered and their skins (leather) was dried, earning it the name ‘Charmavati’. One of the earliest mentions of dacoity in the region comes from the travelogue of the famous Chinese pilgrim, Huen Tsang, who is said to have been robbed near present day Dhaulpur. It is believed that ever since the Tomars came down to the Chambal valley after being pushed out of Delhi by the Chauhan kings, the region has been established as a safe heaven for rebels and dacoits. The bandits are also mentioned in the memoirs of the first Mughal Emperor, Babur. The tradition seems to have continued well into the 20th century with the Chambal bandits being accused of regularly preying upon the caravans of the erstwhile princely state of Gwalior.

Thanks to the fear of the dakus that inhabited its banks, the Chambal River, unlike other Indian rivers, has largely remained pollution free and hosts an amazing riverine faunal assemblage including several species of endangered mammals, indigenous reptiles and migratory birds, even today. The area lies within the semi-arid zone of North Western India and the vegetation consists of typical thorn forests characterized by sparse ground cover along the severely eroded banks and adjacent ravine lands. However, the major eco tourism destination in this region is the National Chambal Sanctuary, consisting of the large arc described by the river in its 960 km odd journey and encompasses areas in the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. The crystal clear waters of the river is home to nearly 1300 gavials, known locally as the Gharials and also supports a 500 strong population of the Indian Mugger. Besides eight species of fresh water turtles, one can also spot the Smooth Coated Otters and the elusive Gangetic Dolphins. Apart from supporting a variety of avian species like Black Bellied Terns, Sarus Cranes and Black Necked Storks, the sanctuary is fast emerging as an ideal place to spot the Indian Skimmer.

Besides these natural wonders, the district of Bhind is dotted with myriad areas of archaeological and religious importance. The 17th century fort of Ater, located deep in the ravines, 35 km west of Bhind city was once the abode of the kings of the Bhaduria dynasty and also a favorite sanctuary for the bandits in the later period. The main attractions in this fort are Khooni Darwaza, Badan Singh ka Mahal, Hathiapor, Raja ka Bangla, Rani ka Bangla and Barah Khamba Mahal. The fort, once in a dilapidated state, is being restored to its past glory by the ASI (Bhopal Circle). Another fort in the Bhind city, the Bhaduria capital, houses two canons that tell a tale of deceit – a treacherous general filled them up with millets instead of gun powder, leading to its fall. A third fort at Gohad, built in the 16th century by the Jat king Maha Singh, located on way to Bhind from Gwalior is renowned for its ‘Kachhari Mahal’ – a unique example of Iranian Art. Another 10 km from the fort is Maharajpur, where several British officers and soldiers were killed in a revolt that took place 13 years prior to the First War of Indian Independence.

The Vankhandeshwar Temple in Bhind, dedicated to Lord Shiva was built by Prithviraj Chauhan in 1175 AD. It is said that the ‘Jyoti’ is continuously flamed since then. The centuries old Jain temples of Baranso were built to commemorate the visit of lord Mahavir in this area. Located in Gohad Tehsil, near Mau, at a place called Jamdara, is the Mata Renuka Temple believed to be the birthplace of the sixth avatar of Lord Vishnu – Maharshi Parashuram. Folklore linked to Parashuram is that his father ordered him to cut the head of his mother, Renuka which he complied and as a prize asked for the revival of his dead mother which his father, Maharshi Jamadagni solicited. The temple built at the place of this activity, has the idol of the deity Renuka, with the head being separate from the rest of the body. Another attraction peculiar to the region is the Naraddev temple, where Maharshi Narad is worshipped. The Bhind district with the Malanpur industrial area is now the new hub of development in Madhya Pradesh.

The Chambal Challenge will provide the international tourists a unique opportunity to experience the various aspects of the Chambal Ghatti. Besides getting to know the flavours, the aroma of the valley, they will also be treated to local folklore, the typical Alha and Languria style of singing. As a bonus, the tourists will be provided free accommodation in tent houses in the camping site near the majestic Ater Fort. The adventure activities planned for the tourists include Water rides (including a motor boat ride to Ater fort), Banana ride, Alligator and Dolphin spotting in the National Chambal Sanctuary, Para Sailing, Hot air Ballooning, Rock Climbing and Zorbo ball. However, the main adventure event is the Chambal Treasure Hunt – a nerve wrecking, adrenaline pumping race against time for the body and the brain where the participants have to find their way through the seemingly endless maze of the ravine topography to seek the treasure hidden deep inside the wilderness within a stipulated time period. A definite area in the Beehad region has been embarked for this year long activity. The person who finds the treasure in the shortest possible time among the participants for the whole year will walk away with the bumper prize and the reputation of being the best in brawn and brain.

However, no trip to the former ‘Dacoit Capital of India’ is complete without an encounter with the dakus of the Chambal Ghatti. The former dacoits, who ruled the valley fiercely for so many years, whose very mention was enough to strike terror in the minds of the people, now out either on parole or after completing their term in jails, will guide the tourists to the beautiful Chambal valley. The tourists now can have a live experience of the rustic terrain along with the former outlaws and even interact with them.

The State government has launched a massive publicity campaign to popularize the event. The Bhind district administration is spending around Rs. 50 lakh to build suitable infrastructure to transport the tourist to the valley. Speaking of the event, an official said “We have contracted leading tour operators and agencies, and are trying to mobilize support for our innovative Chambal Challenge and we hope this will open a new avenue of progress in this ravine-curtained territory”. In tune with their extremely popular tourism campaign entitled, ‘Madhya Pradesh – The Heart of Incredible India’, the State Tourism Department has come up with the following poem to promote the event:

Chambal ki tum Dhar dekho,

Dolphins ka Pyar dekho,

Dakuoon ki Behaad dekho,

Ater ka Itihaas dekho,

Barah Atishay Kshetra dekho,

Ghadiyallon ke Ansoo dekho,

Bhind dekhoo, Bhind dekho,

Bhind dekho, Bhind dekho.

The Chambal Challenge is truly a masterstroke of the Shivraj Singh Chauhan government to attract the visitors to the Chambal valley and put it into the global travel map. A large chunk of credit must also go to Kunwar Ram Pratap Singh, the head of the Chambal Conservation Foundation. Alumni of IIT Rourkee, he and his wife, Anu, left their lucrative jobs to set up the Chambal Safari, an eco-tourism endeavour committed to the sustainable use of natural resources and has been a instrumental in making the ambitious venture, a reality. Tourism will play an important factor in healing the wounds those years of dacoity and negligence have inflicted upon the people of Bhind. Hopefully, this novel initiative will give the whole region an image makeover and usher in a new era of peace, progress and prosperity.

SOURCES:

(1) WWW.WIKIPEDIA.ORG

(2) WWW.CHAMBALCHALLENGE.COM

(3) WWW.CHAMBALSAFARI.COM

(4) WWW.BHIND.NIC

INDIA IN THE PALAEOLITHIC AGE

WHEN IT ALL BEGAN

Contrary to popular conception, the story of human life in India began thousands of years prior to the emergence of the first cities in the plains of Indus and its tributaries. The earliest traces that man left in this region date back millions of years ago, a period referred to as the Pleistocene period or the Great Ice Age, by the geologists. Like an overwhelming majority of prehistoric human societies around the world, these men lived as hunters/gatherers. As man had not yet discovered the art of farming or animal rearing, they survived by gathering various edible items like roots, fruits, honey and so on that nature had to offer or by killing animals, birds and fish available in the surroundings in which they lived. Much of our understanding about these ancient societies comes from the tools that these people made and used for their existence, the faunal remains of the animals they hunted and ate and the rock paintings that they have left behind. Unfortunately, in India, unlike in Europe, Africa and several parts of Asia, very few human remains have been found in association with these primitive tools. Hence our knowledge about these men is severely curtailed.

THE PHASES OF THE PALAEOLITIC AGE

The Palaeolithic Age - the longest age in the history of human civilization begins with the emergence of the first human societies in the last Ice Age and continues up to the starting of the Mesolithic Age in BC 8000. Considering the long extent of this age, historians have divided this period into three phases, on the basis of the kind of the tools used, the techniques used in giving them shape that give an invaluable insight into the advancement of the people as well as the changes in the climate and the environment. These are as follows:-

(1) The Lower Palaeolithic period with tools like hand axes, cleavers, choppers, chopping and tools 

(2) The Middle Palaeolithic period that is based on flakes

(3) The Upper Palaeolithic period includes burins and scrapers

THE PALAEOLITIC TOOLS

No study of the men in the Palaeolithic Age is worthwhile without acquiring enough information about the tools made and used by them. The details regarding some of the tools used in this period and the possible purposes they may have served are given below:-

(1) Hand axe: With a narrow working end a broader working end, it may have been used for cutting and digging purposes.

(2) Cleaver: This bifacial tool may have been employed for clearing and splitting objects like trunks of trees.

(3) Chopper: It is a massive core tool used for chopping purposes.'

(4) Chopping tool: It is a tool that is similar to the chopper and may have served the same purpose. However, unlike the chopper that is manufactured by unifacial flanking, the chopping tool is made by alternate flanking, thereby making it more efficient than the former.

(5) Flake: This most important tool of the middle Palaeolithic phase is crude shaped and produced by applying force on the stone. There are many Flaking Techniques like Free Flaking Technique, Step Flaking Technique, Block on Block Technique, Bipolar Technique etc.

(6) Side Scraper: Side Scraper is made of a flake or blade with continuous retouch along a border. It might have been used for scraping barks of trees and animal skins.

(7) Burin: It is like flake or blade and the working border is produced by the meeting of two planes. It was used for artistic purposes like engraving on soft stones, bones or walls of rock shelters and cores.

THE PALAEOLITIC SITES

The tools fashioned by the Palaeolithic man have been unearthed at various sites across the length and breadth of the country, indicating that several communities existed simultaneously in different parts of the country. The distribution of the tools tells us not only about the areas in which the hunter/gatherers lived and moved but also about their environment.

The Sohan valley located in the Siwalik region of modern day Pakistan is one of the most famous Palaeolithic sites in the Sub-Continent. From sites like Baliwal and Chauntra, tools like choppers and hand axes have been discovered. At Adial, on the bend of the Sohan River, hundreds of edged pebbled tools were discovered. Though no human remains have been ever found, the bearers of this culture – named as the Sohan culture or the Sohan stone industry were Homo erectus. Besides, several fossilized remains of animals like gazelle, giraffe, rhinoceros, rodents and crocodiles have been unearthed from these sites.

Most of these ancient sites have been found in the vicinity of rivers as water was readily available and also many animals would visit these places to quench their thirst, thereby plenty of opportunities for early men to prey upon them. This explains why the banks of Beas, Banganga, Sirsa and Luni have yielded so many Palaeolithic tools. In Rajasthan, Middle Palaeolithic tools implements have been found in the plains of Wadgaon and Kadamali rivers. These include a variety of scrappers, borers and points. Artefacts of this period were also found in Bhandarpur, near Orsang valley in Gujarat. While the river Bhader in Saurashtra is well known for its Palaeolithic assemblages, the Kutch region has produced many choppers, cleavers and hand axes.

Places in Maharashtra, associated with this Age include Chikri near Nevasa, from where hand axes, choppers, cleavers, scrappers and borers have been reported. The other important sites are Chandoli, Koregaon and Shikarpur. In Eastern India, the Palaeolithic tools found from Singhbhum region mainly includes hand axes and choppers. The distribution of tools in the valleys of Damodar and Suvarnarekha is influenced by topographical features. Also, the Buharbalang valley in Mayurbhang, Orissa has many Early and Middle Palaeolithic tools like hand axes, points, flakes etc. From the Ghatprabha basin in Karnataka, Acheulian hand axes have been found in large numbers. Anagawadi and Bagalkot are two most important sites on the Ghatprabha where both Early and Middle Palaeolithic tools have been found. The rivers Palar, Penniyar and Kaveri in Tamil Nadu are rich in Palaeolithic tools.

However, the most famous Palaeolithic site in the country lies in the Heart of India – Madhya Pradesh. The Bhimbetaka Rock Shelters in the Vindhya ranges in Raisen district of MP, with its thick vegetation, perennial water supply, rich vegetation and natural shelters was an ideal place of the Palaeolithic man. Over the years, archaeologists have found nearly 700 rock sites in the region and a closer study has revealed a continuous sequence of Stone Age cultures, from Upper Palaeolithic to Medieval period. The caves have evolved over time into excellent rock-shelters, ideal sites for aboriginal settlements. Apart from the central place the aboriginal drawings have in human history, the caves themselves offer interesting material for a study of the Earth's history. 

The rock shelters and caves of Bhimbetka have a number of interesting paintings which depict the lives and times of the people who lived in the caves, including scenes of childbirth, communal dancing and drinking, and religious rites and burials, as well as the natural environment around them. Executed mainly in red and white with the occasional use of green and yellow with themes taken from the everyday events of aeons ago, the scenes usually depict hunting, dancing, music, horse and elephant riders, animal fighting, honey collection, decoration of bodies, disguises, masking and household scenes. Animals such as bison, tigers, lions, wild boar, elephants, antelope, dogs, lizards, crocodiles etc. have been abundantly depicted. The superimposition of paintings shows that the same canvas was used by different people at different times. It is a marvel that the paintings have not faded even after thousands of years.

SUBSISTENCE PATTERN

The rock paintings and carvings on the walls of cave shelters give an insight into the subsistence pattern as well as the religious and social life of the early man. The Period I of Bhimbetka belongs to the Upper Palaeolithic Age. They reflect that Palaeolithic people lived in small band (small groups) societies whose subsistence economy was based on exploitation of resources in the form of both animal and plant products. Hunting is reflected as the main subsistence pursuit in the carvings and paintings. These paintings, done primarily in red and dark green colours are predominantly of bison, elephants, tigers, rhinos and boars. It is sometimes possible to distinguish between men and women on the basis of anatomical features.

There is a rich assemblage of animals both of indigenous and foreign origin. Primates, many giraffe-like forms, musk deer, goats, buffaloes, bovids and pigs seem to be of indigenous origin. The camel and the horse had North-American connection. Hippopotamus and elephants migrated to India from Central Africa. The abundant faunal remains seem to indicate that the Palaeolithic man was in hunter/gatherer stage. The people would have made extensive use of faunal and floral resources in their immediate vicinity. Hunting practices were concentrated on large and middle sized mammals especially ungulates. There is no evidence of selective hunting in this period. In some assemblages few species dominate; it is so because of their abundance in the area or because they were easy to hunt.
It seems that the subsistence pattern of hunter-gatherers was geared to a dry season/wet season cycle of exploitation of plant and animal foods. It is likely that the Palaeolithic people subsisted on such animals as ox, bison, antelope, wild boar, a variety of birds, and tortoises and fishes and on honey and plant foods like fruits roots, seeds and leaves.

SOURCES

(1) Wikipedia - Palaeolithic Age (Link)

(2) IGNOU Notes on Indian History (Chapter 3)